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Introduction to Physical Geography | |
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The Scope of Geography | |
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Defining Physical Geography | |
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The Earth's Four Spheres | |
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Organization of This Book | |
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Exploring Cause-and-Effect Relationships | |
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An Interactive Tool | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Stream Meandering | |
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Focus on Geographical Literacy | |
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Physical Geography Is Interesting, Exciting, and Relevant to Your Life | |
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The Big Picture | |
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The Geographers' Tools | |
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The Geographic Grid | |
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Latitude | |
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Longitude | |
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Using the Geographic Grid | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Using the Geographic Grid | |
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Amazing Places: Big But Hard to Reach | |
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Maps-The Basic Tool of Geographers | |
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Map Projections | |
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Map Scale | |
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Isolines | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Using Maps | |
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Digital Technology in Geography | |
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Remote Sensing | |
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What a Geographer Sees: Infrared Images | |
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Global Positioning Systems | |
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Geographic Information Systems | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Using a Geographic Information System | |
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The Big Picture | |
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Earth-Sun Geometry and the Seasons | |
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Our Place in Space | |
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The Shape of the Earth | |
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Amazing Places: The Sun | |
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Earth's Orbit Around the Sun | |
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The Earth's Rotation and Axial Tilt | |
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The Seasons | |
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Solstice and Equinox | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Orbital View and Earth as Viewed from the Sun | |
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How We See Earth-Sun Geometry on Earth | |
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Day and Night | |
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Seasonal Changes in Sun Position (Angle) and Length of Day | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Celestial Dome | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Sun Angle and Length of Day | |
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What a Geographer Sees: Sunrise in the Southern Hemisphere | |
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The Big Picture | |
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The Global Energy System | |
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Solar Energy | |
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum | |
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GeoDiscoveries: The Electromagnetic Spectrum | |
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Solar Energy and the Solar Constant | |
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Composition of the Atmosphere | |
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Constant Gases | |
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Variable Gases | |
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What a Geographer Sees: The Formation of Rainbows | |
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Particulates | |
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The Flow of Solar Radiation on Earth | |
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Heat Transfer | |
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Flow of Solar Radiation in the Atmosphere | |
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Interaction of Solar Radiation and the Earth's Surface | |
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GeoDiscoveries: The Angle of Incidence | |
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The Global Radiation Budget | |
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GeoDiscoveries: The Global Energy Budget | |
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The Big Picture | |
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Global Temperature Patterns | |
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Layered Structure of the Atmosphere | |
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The Troposphere | |
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The Stratosphere | |
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The Mesosphere | |
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The Thermosphere | |
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What a Geographer Sees: Auroras | |
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Surface and Air Temperatures | |
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Calculating the Heat Index and Wind Chill | |
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Large-Scale Geographic Factors That Influence Air Temperature | |
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Amazing Places: Temperature Extremes on Earth | |
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Local Factors That Influence Air Temperature | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Surface Temperature | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Maritime vs. Continental Effect | |
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The Annual Range of Surface Temperature (Putting It All Together) | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Temperature and Location | |
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The Big Picture | |
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Atmospheric Pressure, Wind, and Global Circulation | |
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Atmospheric Pressure | |
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Factors That Influence Air Pressure | |
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Measuring and Mapping Air Pressure | |
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Atmospheric Pressure Systems | |
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Low-Pressure Systems | |
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High-Pressure Systems | |
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What A Geographer Sees: Migrating Pressure Systems | |
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The Direction Of Air Flow | |
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Unequal Heating of Land Surfaces | |
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Pressure Gradient Force | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Fluctuations in the Pressure Gradient | |
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Coriolis Force | |
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GeoDiscoveries: The Coriolis Force | |
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Frictional Forces | |
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Global Pressure and Atmospheric Circulation | |
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Tropical Circulation | |
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Midlatitude Circulation | |
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Polar Circulation | |
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Seasonal Migration of Pressure Systems | |
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Amazing Places: Mt. Washington | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Global Atmospheric Circulation | |
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Local Wind Systems | |
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Land-Sea Breezes | |
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Topographic Winds | |
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Oceanic Circulation | |
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Gyres and Thermohaline Circulation | |
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El Nino | |
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GeoDiscoveries: El Nino | |
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The Big Picture | |
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Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation | |
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Physical Properties of Water | |
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Hydrogen Bonding | |
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Thermal Properties of Water and Its Physical States | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Latent Heat | |
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The Hydrosphere and the Hydrologic Cycle | |
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Humidity | |
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Maximum, Specific, and Relative Humidity | |
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Dew-Point Temperature | |
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Amazing Places: Death Valley | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Atmospheric Humidity | |
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Evaporation | |
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Adiabatic Processes | |
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The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate | |
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The Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Adiabatic Processes | |
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Cloud Formation and Classification | |
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Fog | |
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Cloud Classification | |
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What a Geographer Sees: Unusual Clouds | |
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Precipitation | |
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Types of Precipitation | |
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Precipitation Processes | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Convectional Precipitation | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Orographic Processes | |
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The Big Picture | |
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Air Masses and Cyclonic Weather Systems | |
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Air Masses and Fronts | |
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Air Masses | |
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Fronts | |
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Evolution and Character of Midlatitude Cyclones | |
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Upper Air Flow and the 500-mb Pressure Surface | |
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Interaction of Upper Air Flow and Surface Air Flow | |
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Cyclogenesis | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Formation of a Midlatitude Cyclone | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Migration of a Midlatitude Cyclone | |
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Thunderstorms | |
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Evolution of Thunderstorms | |
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Severe Thunderstorms | |
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Tornadoes | |
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Amazing Places: Tornado Alley | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Tornadoes | |
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Tropical Cyclones | |
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Hurricanes | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Migration of Hurricane Katrina | |
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The Big Picture | |
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Global Climates | |
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Climate and the Factors That Affect It | |
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Koppen Climate Classification | |
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Geography of Koppen Climates | |
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Character and Geographic Distribution of Tropical (A) Climates | |
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What a Geographer Sees: The Relationship of Climate and Vegetation | |
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GeoDiscoveries: The Tropical Savanna Climate (Aw) | |
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Character and Geographic Distribution of Arid and Semi-Arid (B) Climates | |
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Amazing Places: Atacama Desert | |
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Character and Geographic Distribution of Mesothermal (C) Climates | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Humid Subtropical Hot-Summer Climates (Cfa, Cwa) | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Marine West-Coast Climates (Cfb, Cfc) | |
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Character and Geographic Distribution of Microthermal (D) Climates | |
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Character and Geographic Distribution of Polar (E) Climates | |
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Character and Geographic Distribution of Highland (H) Climates | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Remote Sensing and Climate | |
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Global Climate Change | |
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The Carbon Cycle | |
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Is Anthropogenic Climate Change Really Occurring? | |
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Predicting Future Climate Change | |
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The Big Picture | |
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Plant Geography | |
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The Process of Photosynthesis | |
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The Relationship of Climate and Vegetation: The Character and Distribution of Global Biomes | |
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Forest Biomes | |
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What a Geographer Sees: Wildfires | |
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Amazing Places: The Coastal Redwoods | |
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Grassland Biomes | |
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Desert Biomes | |
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Tundra Biome | |
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Local and Regional Factors That Influence the Geographic Distribution of Vegetation | |
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Slope and Aspect | |
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Vertical Zonation | |
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Plant Succession | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Plant Succession | |
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Riparian Zones | |
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Human Influence on Vegetation Patterns | |
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Deforestation and Its Consequences | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Deforestation | |
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Agriculture in the Midlatitude Grassland Biome | |
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Overgrazing | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Remote Sensing and the Biosphere | |
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The Big Picture | |
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The Global Distribution and Character of Soils | |
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What Is Soil? | |
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Basic Soil Properties | |
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Soil-Forming (Pedogenic) Processes | |
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Soil-Forming Factors | |
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Amazing Places: Buried Soils at the Eustis Ash Pit in Nebraska | |
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Measurable Soil Characteristics | |
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What a Geographer Sees: Soil Conservation on Steep Slopes | |
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Soil Chemistry | |
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Soil pH | |
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Colloids and Cation Exchange | |
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Soil Profiles (Reading the Soil) | |
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Time and Soil Evolution | |
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Soil Science and Classification | |
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The Twelve Soil Orders | |
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GeoDiscoveries: African Climate, Vegetation, and Soils | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Regional Pedogenic Processes | |
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GeoDiscoveries: North American Climate, Vegetation, and Soils | |
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The Big Picture | |
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Earth's Internal Structure, Rock Cycle, and Geologic Time | |
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Earth's Inner Structure | |
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The Major Layers | |
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Rocks and Minerals In The Earth's Crust | |
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Igneous Rocks | |
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What a Geographer Sees: Exposed Igneous Intrusions | |
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Sedimentary Rocks | |
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Metamorphic Rocks | |
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The Rock Cycle | |
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GeoDiscoveries: The Rock Cycle | |
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Geologic Time | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Geologic Time | |
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Telling Geologic Time | |
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Putting Geologic Time in Perspective | |
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Amazing Places: The Grand Canyon | |
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Integrating Geologic Time and the Rock Cycle: The Spanish Peaks | |
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Basic Geomorphology of Continents and Ocean Basins | |
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Alpine Chains | |
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Continental Shields | |
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The Big Picture | |
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Tectonic Processes and Landforms | |
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Plate Tectonics | |
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The Lithospheric Plates | |
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Plate Movement | |
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Types of Plate Movement | |
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Passive Plate Margins | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Continental Drift | |
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Transform Plate Margins | |
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Plate Divergence | |
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Amazing Places: Olduvai Gorge | |
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Plate Convergence | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Folding | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Plate Tectonics | |
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Earthquakes | |
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Earthquake Processes | |
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Locating the Epicenter | |
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Measuring Earthquake Magnitude | |
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Types of Faults | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Types of Faults | |
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Volcanoes | |
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Explosive Volcanoes | |
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What a Geographer Sees: Crater Lake | |
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Fluid Volcanoes and Hotspots | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Volcanoes | |
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The Big Picture | |
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Weathering and Mass Movement | |
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Weathering | |
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Mechanical Weathering | |
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What a Geographer Sees: The Long-Term Effects of Weathering and Erosion on Mountains | |
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Amazing Places: Anasazi Cliff Dwellings Chemical Weathering | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Weathering | |
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Mass Wasting | |
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Rockfall | |
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Soil Creep | |
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Landslides | |
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Flows | |
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Avalanches | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Weathering and Mass Movements | |
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The Big Picture | |
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Groundwater and Karst Landscapes | |
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Movement and Storage of Groundwater | |
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The High Plains Aquifer | |
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Amazing Places: Oases in the Sahara Desert | |
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Subsidence | |
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Groundwater Contamination | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Hydrologic Cycle and Groundwater | |
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Karst Landforms and Landscapes | |
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Caves and Caverns | |
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Karst Topography | |
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Amazing Places: Tower Karst in China | |
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The Big Picture | |
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Fluvial Systems and Landforms | |
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Overland Flow and Drainage Basins | |
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Origin of Streams | |
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Drainage Basins | |
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Drainage Patterns, Density, and Stream Ordering | |
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GeoDiscoveries: The Rhine River | |
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Hydraulic Geometry and Channel Flow | |
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Stream Discharge | |
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Fluvial Processes and Landforms | |
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Erosion and Deposition | |
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Stream Gradation | |
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Amazing Places: Waterfalls | |
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GeoDiscoveries: The Graded Stream | |
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Evolution of Stream Valleys and Floodplains | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Stream Meandering | |
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What a Geographer Sees: Mississippi River Meanders | |
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Other Depositional Landforms Associated with Streams | |
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Human Interactions with Streams | |
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Urbanization | |
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Artificial Levees | |
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Dams and Reservoirs | |
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The Big Picture | |
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Glacial Geomorphology: Processes and Landforms | |
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Development of a Glacier | |
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The Metamorphosis of Snow to Glacial Ice | |
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The Glacial Mass Budget | |
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Glacial Movement | |
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Types of Glaciers | |
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Glaciers in Mountainous Regions | |
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Amazing Places: The Vatnajokull Ice Cap | |
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Continental Glaciers | |
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Glacial Landforms | |
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Landforms Made by Glacial Erosion | |
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Deposition of Glacial Drift and Resulting Landforms | |
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History of Glaciation | |
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How Many Pleistocene Glaciations Were There? | |
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The Wisconsin Glaciation and the Evolution of the Great Lakes | |
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What a Geographer Sees: The Channeled Scablands in Eastern Washington | |
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What Causes Glaciation? | |
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Glacial Periods and Earth-Sun Geometry | |
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GeoDiscoveries: The Milankovitch Theory | |
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Impact of Global Climate Change on Glaciers | |
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Periglacial Processes and Landscapes | |
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Permafrost | |
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Ground Ice and Associated Landforms | |
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The Big Picture | |
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Arid Landscapes and Eolian Processes | |
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Arid Landscapes | |
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Desert Geomorphology | |
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Eolian Erosion and Transport | |
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The Fluid Behavior of Wind and Sediment Transport | |
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Eolian Erosional Landforms | |
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Eolian Deposition and Landforms | |
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How Sand Dunes Form | |
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Types of Sand Dunes | |
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Amazing Places: Great Sand Dunes National Monument | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Eolian Processes and Landforms | |
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What a Geographer Sees: Sand Dunes on Mars | |
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Loess | |
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Human Interactions with Eolian Processes | |
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Desertification in the African Sahel | |
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Desertification in the Great Plains of the United States: The Dust Bowl | |
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The Big Picture | |
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Coastal Processes and Landforms | |
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Oceans and Seas on the Earth | |
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The Nature of Coastlines: Intersection of Earth's Spheres | |
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Processes That Shape the Coastline | |
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Amazing Places: Big Waves in Hawaii | |
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Coastal Landforms | |
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Erosional Coastlines | |
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What a Geographer Sees: Marine Terraces on San Clemente Island, California | |
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Depositional Coastlines | |
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GeoDiscoveries: Longshore Processes and Depositional Coastlines | |
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Human Imapcts on Coastlines | |
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Coastal Engineering | |
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Global Climate Change and the Impact on Coastlines | |
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Glossary | |
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Photo Credits | |
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Index | |