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| Preface | |
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| Acknowledgements | |
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| List of Abbreviations | |
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| Weight and Mass | |
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| The Preliminaries | |
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| Basic Principles | |
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| The Atmosphere | |
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| The Composition of Air | |
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| The Measurement of Temperature | |
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| Air Density | |
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| The International Standard Atmosphere | |
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| ISA Deviation | |
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| JSA Deviation | |
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| Height and Altitude | |
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| Pressure Altitude | |
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| Density Altitude | |
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| The Physical Properties of Air | |
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| Fluid Pressure | |
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| Static Pressure | |
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| Dynamic Pressure | |
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| Basic Physics | |
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| Newton's Laws of Motion | |
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| Definitions | |
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| First Law | |
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| Second Law | |
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| Third Law | |
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| Constant-Acceleration Formulae | |
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| The Equation of Impulse | |
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| The Basic Gas Laws | |
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| Boyles Law | |
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| Charles' Law | |
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| Pressure Law | |
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| The Ideal Gas Equation | |
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| The Conservation Laws | |
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| Bernoulli's Theorem | |
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| Viscosity | |
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| The Equation of Continuity | |
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| Reynolds Number | |
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| Critical Reynolds Number (Recrit) | |
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| Units of Measurement | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 1 | |
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| Basic Aerodynamic Definitions | |
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| Aerofoil Profile | |
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| Aerofoil Attitude | |
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| Wing Shape | |
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| Wing Loading | |
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| Weight and Mass | |
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| The Newton | |
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| Airspeeds | |
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| Airspeed Indicator Reading (ASIR) | |
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| Indicated Airspeed (IAS) | |
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| Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) | |
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| Rectified Airspeed (RAS) | |
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| Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) | |
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| True Airspeed (TAS) | |
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| Mach Number | |
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| Speed Summary | |
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| The Effect of Altitude on Airspeeds | |
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| Below the Tropopause | |
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| Above the Tropopause | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 2 | |
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| Basic Aerodynamics | |
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| Basic Control | |
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| Aeroplane Axes and Planes of Rotation | |
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| The Longitudinal or Roll Axis | |
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| The Lateral or Pitch Axis | |
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| The Normal or Yaw Axis | |
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| The Flight Controls | |
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| The Elevators | |
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| Pitch Control | |
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| Control Surface Area | |
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| Control Surface Angular Deflection | |
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| The Moment Arm | |
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| Angle of Attack | |
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| Alternative Pitch Controls | |
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| Variable Incidence Tailplane | |
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| The Stabilator | |
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| The Elevons | |
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| The Rudder | |
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| Yaw Control | |
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| Control-Surface Area | |
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| Control-Surface Deflection | |
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| The Moment Arm | |
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| Engine-Induced Yaw | |
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| Asymmetric Engine Yawing Moment | |
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| Asymmetric Rolling Moment | |
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| Minimum Control Speeds | |
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| For Take-off | |
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| For Landing | |
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| Vmc | |
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| Vmcg | |
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| The Effect of the Variables on Vmcg and Vmc | |
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| Vmcl | |
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| Vmcl (1 out) | |
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| Vmcl-2 | |
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| The Effect of the Variables on Vmcl | |
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| The Ailerons | |
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| Roll Control | |
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| The Flaperon | |
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| Wing Twist | |
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| Geometric Twist | |
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| Aerodynamic Twist | |
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| Twisterons | |
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| High-Speed Twist | |
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| Low-Speed Ailerons | |
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| High-Speed Ailerons | |
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| Roll Spoilers | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 3 | |
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| Lift Generation | |
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| Turbulent Flow | |
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| Streamline Flow | |
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| The Boundary Layer | |
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| The Laminar Boundary Layer | |
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| The Transition Point | |
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| The Turbulent Boundary Layer | |
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| Leading-Edge Separation | |
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| Boundary-Layer Control | |
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| Blowing | |
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| Suction | |
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| Vortex Generators | |
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| Two-Dimensional Flow | |
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| The Stagnation Point | |
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| Aerofoil Upper-Surface Airflow | |
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| Aerofoil Lower-Surface Airflow | |
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| Lift Production | |
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| Symmetrical Aerofoils | |
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| Cambered Aerofoils | |
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| Negative Angles of Attack | |
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| Small Positive Angles of Attack | |
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| Large Positive Angles of Attack | |
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| The Centre of Pressure (CP) | |
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| Pitching Moments | |
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| The Aerodynamic Centre | |
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| Three-Dimensional Flow | |
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| Wing-Tip Vortices | |
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| Wake Turbulence | |
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| Spanwise Lift Distribution | |
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| The Effect of Wing Planform | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 4 | |
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| Level-Flight Aerodynamics | |
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| Lift Analysis | |
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| The Four Forces | |
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| Mass | |
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| Lift Analysis | |
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| The Factors Affecting Cl | |
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| The Effect of Angle of Attack | |
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| The Effect of the Wing Shape | |
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| The Effect of Leading-Edge Radius | |
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| The Effect of Camber | |
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| The Effect of Aspect Ratio | |
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| The Wing Planform | |
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| The Effect of Sweepback | |
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| The Effect of Airframe-Surface Condition | |
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| The Effect of Reynolds Number | |
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| The Relationship between Speeds, Angles of Attack and Cl | |
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| Aerofoil Profiles | |
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| High-Lift Aerofoils | |
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| General-Purpose Aerofoils | |
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| High-Speed Aerofoils | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 5 | |
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| Lift Augmentation | |
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| Wing Loading | |
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| Clmax Augmentation | |
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| Slats | |
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| Automatic Slats | |
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| Manual Slats | |
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| Slots | |
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| Flaps | |
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| Leading-Edge Flaps | |
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| The Krueger Flap | |
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| The Drooped Leading Edge | |
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| Trailing-Edge Flaps | |
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| The Plain Trailing-Edge Flap | |
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| The Split Trailing-Edge Flap | |
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| The Slotted Trailing-Edge Flap | |
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| The Fowler Flap | |
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| The Effect of Trailing-Edge Flaps | |
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| Leading- and Trailing-Edge Combinations | |
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| The Effect of Sweepback on Flap | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 6 | |
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| Drag | |
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| Parasite (Profile) Drag | |
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| Surface-Friction Drag | |
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| Surface Area | |
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| Coefficient of Viscosity | |
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| Rate of Change of Airspeed | |
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| Flow Transition | |
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| Surface Condition | |
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| Speed and Size | |
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| Adverse Pressure Gradient | |
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| Form (Pressure) Drag | |
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| Interference Drag | |
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| Induced Drag | |
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| The Effect of Speed | |
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| The Effect of Mass | |
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| The Effect of Planform | |
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| The Effect of Sweepback | |
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| The Effect of Aspect Ratio | |
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| The Effect of Flap | |
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| The Effect of the CG Position | |
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| Effects Summary | |
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| Ground Effect | |
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| Wing-Tip Design | |
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| Wingspan Loading | |
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| The Coefficient of Induced Drag (CDI) | |
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| Total Drag | |
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| Analysis of the Total-Drag Curve | |
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| The Velocity of Minimum Drag (Vimd) | |
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| The Velocity of MinimumPower(Vimp) | |
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| The Maximum EAS/Drag Ratio (Vi/Dmax) Speed | |
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| Speed Stability and Instability | |
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| The Effect of the Variables on Total Drag | |
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| The Effect of Altitude | |
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| The Effect of Mass | |
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| The Effect of Flap | |
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| The Cl v Cd Polar Diagram | |
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| Analysis of the Lift/Drag Ratio | |
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| The Effect of Flap | |
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| The Effect of Aspect Ratio | |
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| The Effect of Mass | |
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| Drag Augmentation | |
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| Airbrakes | |
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| Spoilers | |
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| Flight Spoilers | |
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| Ground Spoilers | |
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| Roll Spoilers | |
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| Barn-Door Flaps | |
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| Drag Parachutes | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 7 | |
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| Stalling | |
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| The Stall | |
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| The Boundary Layer | |
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| Boundary-Layer Separation | |
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| Trailing-Edge Separation | |
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| Leading-Edge Separation | |
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| The Low-Speed Stall | |
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| Stalling Angle | |
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| Factors Affecting the Low-Speed Stalling Angle | |
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| Slat/Flap Setting | |
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| Ice Accretion | |
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| Effect on Take-off and Landing | |
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| Take-Off | |
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| Landing | |
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| Reduced Stalling Angle | |
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| Abnormal Stalling Characteristics | |
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| Heavy Rain | |
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| The Effect of Wing Design on the Low-Speed Stall | |
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| Swept Wings | |
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| Elliptical Wings | |
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| Rectangular Wings | |
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| Straight Tapered Wings | |
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| Spanwise-Flow Attenuation Devices | |
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| The Wing Fence | |
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| The Sawtooth Leading Edge | |
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| The Notched Leading Edge | |
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| Vortex Generators | |
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| Wing-Tip Stalling | |
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| The Effect of Flap | |
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| The Prevention of Wing-Tip Stalling | |
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| Washout | |
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| Root Spoiler | |
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| Changing Camber | |
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| Slats and Slots | |
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| Aspect Ratio | |
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| Stalling Characteristics | |
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| Ideal Stalling Characteristics | |
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| Swept-Wing Stalling Characteristics | |
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| Summary of Factors Affecting the Stalling Angle | |
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| Stall Warning | |
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| Aerodynamic Stall Warning | |
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| Mechanical Stall Warning | |
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| The Flapper Switch | |
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| The Angle of Attack Sensor | |
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| Stick Shakers | |
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| Stick Pushers | |
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| Stalling Speed | |
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| Factors Affecting Stalling Speed | |
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| Centre of Gravity (CG) | |
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| Forward CG | |
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| Disadvantage | |
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| Advantage | |
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| Aft CG | |
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| Disadvantage | |
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| Advantage | |
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| Mass | |
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| Altitude | |
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| Configuration | |
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| Ice Accretion | |
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| Wing Planform | |
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| Summary of Factor Effects on Stalling Speed | |
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| The Speed Boundary | |
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| The Effect of a Gust on the Load Factor | |
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| Turn Stalling Speed | |
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| Stalling-Speed Definitions | |
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| Vclmax | |
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| Vms | |
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| Vms0 | |
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| Vms1 | |
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| Vs | |
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| Vs0 | |
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| Vs1 | |
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| Vs1g | |
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| Vsr | |
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| Vsr0 | |
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| Vsr1 | |
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| Other Types of Stall | |
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| The Deep Stall | |
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| The Accelerated Stall | |
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| The Power-On Stall | |
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| The Shock Stall | |
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| Stall Recovery | |
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| The Low-speed Stall | |
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| The Deep Stall | |
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| The Accelerated Stall | |
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| The Power-On Stall | |
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| The Shock Stall | |
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| The Spin | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 8 | |
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| Thrust and Power in Level Flight | |
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| Thrust | |
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| Analysis of the Thrust Curves | |
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| Thrust Available | |
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| Thrust Required | |
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| Maximum Speed (EAS) | |
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| The Effect of the Variables on Thrust | |
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| Altitude | |
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| Mass | |
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| Asymmetric Flight | |
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| Centre of Gravity | |
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| Power | |
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| Analysis of the Power Curves | |
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| Maximum TAS | |
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| Vmp and Vmd | |
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| The Effect of the Variables on Power | |
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| Altitude | |
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| Mass | |
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| Summary | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 9 | |
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| Advanced Control | |
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| Wing Torsion and Flexing | |
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| Wing Flutter | |
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| Torsional Flexural Flutter | |
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| Aileron Flutter | |
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| Torsional Aileron Flutter | |
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| Flexural Aileron Flutter | |
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| The Mass Balance | |
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| Divergence | |
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| Control Secondary Effects | |
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| Adverse Yaw | |
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| Counteraction Devices | |
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| Rudder/Aileron Coupling | |
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| Slot/Aileron Coupling | |
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| Spoiler/Aileron Coupling | |
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| Differential Aileron Deflection | |
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| Frise Ailerons | |
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| Control-Surface Operation | |
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| Aerodynamic Balance Methods | |
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| The Hinge Balance | |
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| The Horn Balance | |
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| The Internal Balance | |
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| The Balance Tab | |
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| The Antibalance Tab | |
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| The Spring Tab | |
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| The Servo Tab | |
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| Primary Control-Surface Trimming | |
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| Variable Trim Tabs | |
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| Fixed Trim Tabs | |
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| Stabilizer Trim Setting | |
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| Powered Controls | |
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| Power-Assisted Controls | |
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| Fully Powered Controls | |
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| Artificial Feel | |
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| The Simple System | |
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| The Servo-Assisted Hydraulic System | |
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| Fly-by-Wire | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 10 | |
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| Stability | |
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| Static Stability | |
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| Static Stability | |
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| The Effect of the Variables on Static Stability | |
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| Directional Static Stability | |
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| Yaw and Sideslip | |
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| The Directional Restoring Moment | |
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| Fin and Rudder Design | |
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| The Dorsal Fin | |
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| The Ventral Fin | |
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| The Moment Arm | |
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| Aeroplane Design Features Affecting Directional Static Stability | |
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| Fuselage | |
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| Wing | |
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| Dihedral | |
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| Sweepback | |
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| Propeller Slipstream | |
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| Neutral Directional Static Stability | |
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| Lateral Static Stability | |
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| Aeroplane Design Features Affecting Lateral Static Stability | |
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| Increased Lateral Static Stability | |
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| Decreased Lateral Static Stability | |
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| Sideslip Angle and Rolling Moment Coefficient | |
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| Analysis of Design Feature Effects | |
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| Wing Contribution | |
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| Dihedral | |
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| Anhedral | |
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| Sweepback | |
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| Wing/Fuselage Interference | |
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| Shielding Effect | |
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| Wing Location | |
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| Fuselage/Fin | |
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| Fin Size | |
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| Ventral Fin | |
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| Handling Considerations | |
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| Propeller Slipstream | |
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| Crosswind Landings | |
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| Flaps | |
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| Longitudinal Static Stability | |
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| The Centre of Pressure (CP) | |
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| The Neutral Point (NP) | |
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| Types of Static Neutral Point | |
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| The Stick-Free Static Neutral Point | |
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| The Stick-Fixed Static Neutral Point | |
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| The Effect of the CG at the NP | |
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| The Aerodynamic Centre (AC) | |
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| The Centre of Gravity (CG) | |
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| The CG Envelope | |
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| CG Envelope Limitations | |
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| CG Movement | |
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| The Effect of CG at the Limits | |
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| CG at the Forward Limit | |
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| CG at the Aft Limit | |
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| The Static Margin (SM) | |
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| The Trim Point (TP) | |
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| Longitudinal Dihedral | |
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| Aircraft-Design Variations | |
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| The Effect of the Variables on Longitudinal Static Stability | |
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| Elevator Deflection | |
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| Trim | |
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| The Fuselage | |
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| Angle of Attack | |
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| Configuration | |
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| Trailing-Edge Flaps | |
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| Undercarriage | |
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| Stick-Fixed Longitudinal Static Stability | |
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| Stick-Position Stability | |
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| Stick-Free Longitudinal Static Stability | |
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| Stick Force | |
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| Certification Standard Stick-Force Requirements | |
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| Class 'A' Aeroplanes CS 25.173(c) | |
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| Class 'B' Aeroplanes CS 23.173(c) | |
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| The Effect of CG Position on Stick Force | |
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| Longitudinal Static Manoeuvre Stability | |
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| The Manoeuvre Point | |
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| Factors Affecting Stick Force | |
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| Summary | |
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| The Effect of Atmospheric Conditions | |
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| Ice Accretion | |
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| Heavy Rain | |
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| Altitude | |
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| The Factors Affecting Static Stability | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 11 | |
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| Dynamic Stability | |
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| Longitudinal Dynamic Stability | |
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| The Phugoid | |
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| Short-Period Oscillation | |
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| Factors Affecting Longitudinal Dynamic Stability | |
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| Lateral Dynamic Stability | |
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| Sideslip | |
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| Rolling | |
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| Spiral | |
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| Dutch Roll | |
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| Spiral Instability | |
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| Dutch Roll | |
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| Asymmetric Thrust | |
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| Aerodynamic Damping | |
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| Summary | |
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| The Factors Affecting Dynamic Stability | |
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| General | |
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| Longitudinal | |
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| Lateral | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 12 | |
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| Manoeuvre Aerodynamics | |
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| Level-Flight Manouevres | |
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| The Manoeuvre Envelope | |
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| The Flight Load Factor | |
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| Manoeuvre-Envelope Limitations | |
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| The Stalling Speed | |
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| The 'g' Limitation | |
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| The Manoeuvre-Envelope Limiting Parameters | |
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| The Manoeuvre-Envelope Maximum-Speed Limitation | |
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| Stalling and Design Speed Definitions | |
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| Limiting Speeds | |
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| The Gust Envelope | |
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| The Load Factor | |
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| The Gust Load Factor | |
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| Buffet | |
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| Low-Speed Buffet | |
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| High-Speed Buffet | |
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| The Buffet Onset Boundary Chart | |
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| Turns | |
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| The Load Factor in a Turn | |
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| The Turn Radius | |
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| Rate of Turn | |
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| Turn and Slip Indications | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 13 | |
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| Climb and Descent Aerodynamics | |
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| Climbing Flight | |
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| The Forces in a Climb | |
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| The Effect of the Variables on the Climb | |
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| Altitude | |
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| Mass | |
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| Flap Setting | |
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| Wind Component | |
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| Climb Gradient | |
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| Climb-Gradient Calculations | |
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| Method 1 | |
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| Method 2 | |
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| Rate of Climb | |
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| Rate-of-Climb Calculations | |
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| Vx and Vy | |
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| Vx | |
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| Vy | |
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| Aircraft Ceiling | |
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| Vy at the Absolute Ceiling | |
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| Piston/Propeller Aeroplanes | |
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| Jet Aeroplanes | |
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| The Effect of the Variables on Vx and Vy | |
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| Mass | |
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| Flap | |
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| Altitude | |
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| Temperature | |
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| Wind Component | |
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| The Effect of Climbing-Speed Variations | |
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| Factors Affecting the Climb | |
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| The Glide Descent | |
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| The Glide Variables | |
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| Gliding for Maximum Range | |
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| The Effect of the Variables on a Glide Descent | |
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| Speed | |
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| Wind Component | |
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| Mass | |
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| Angle of Attack | |
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| Flap | |
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| Gliding for Maximum Endurance | |
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| Climbing and Descending Turns | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 14 | |
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| Other Aerodynamic Considerations | |
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| High-Speed Flight | |
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| General Introduction | |
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| High-Speed Definitions | |
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| High-Speed Calculations | |
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| The Shockwave | |
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| Compressibility | |
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| Shockwave Formation | |
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| Air-Pressure-Wave Patterns | |
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| Subsonic | |
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| Sonic | |
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| Supersonic | |
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| The Shockwave Deflection Angle | |
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| The High-Speed CP | |
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| Critical Mach Number (Mcrit) | |
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| The Effect of a Shockwave | |
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| Wave Drag | |
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| Drag Divergence Mach Number | |
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| The Flying Controls | |
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| The Effect of the Aerofoil Profile | |
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| Thickness/Chord Ratio | |
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| Wing Camber | |
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| Swept Wings | |
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| The Effect of Sweepback | |
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| The Advantages of Sweepback | |
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| Increased Mcrit | |
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| Aerodynamic Effects | |
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| The Disadvantages of Sweepback | |
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| Remedial Design Features | |
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| Low-Speed Ailerons | |
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| High-Speed Ailerons | |
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| Area Rule | |
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| High-Speed-Flight Characteristics | |
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| High-Speed Buffet | |
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| Tuck Under | |
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| The Shock Stall | |
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| The Buffet Boundary | |
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| Coffin Corner | |
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| Speed Instability | |
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| The Mach Trimmer | |
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| Lateral Instability | |
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| The Supercritical Wing | |
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| Supersonic Airflow | |
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| The Convex Corner Mach Wave | |
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| The Concave-Corner Shockwave | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 15 | |
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| Propellers | |
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| Propeller Definitions | |
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| Basic Principles | |
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| Factors Affecting Propeller Efficiency | |
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| Airspeed | |
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| Fixed-Pitch Propellers | |
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| Variable-Pitch Propellers | |
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| Power Absorption | |
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| Propeller-Blade Shape | |
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| Blade Length | |
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| Blade Chord | |
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| Propeller-Blade Number | |
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| Solidity | |
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| The Effects of a Propeller on Aeroplane Performance | |
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| Torque | |
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| Slipstream Effect | |
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| Asymmetric Blade | |
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| Gyroscopic Effect | |
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| Propeller Forces and Moments | |
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| Centrifugal Force (CF) | |
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| Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM) | |
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| Aerodynamic Twisting Moment (ATM) | |
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| Propeller-Blade Positions | |
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| The Constant-Speed Unit (CSU) | |
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| Propeller Windmilling | |
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| Propeller Feathering | |
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| Reverse Pitch | |
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| The Effect of a Constant Speed Propeller On a Glide Descent | |
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| Engine Failure | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 16 | |
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| Operational Considerations | |
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| Runway-Surface Contamination | |
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| Surface Contaminants | |
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| Standing Water | |
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| Slush | |
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| Wet Snow | |
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| Dry Snow | |
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| Very Dry Snow | |
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| Compacted Snow | |
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| Ice | |
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| Specially Prepared Winter Runway | |
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| Mixtures | |
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| Contaminant Drag | |
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| Water-Equivalent Depth | |
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| The Effect of Runway Contamination | |
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| Take-off | |
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| Aeroplane Contamination | |
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| The Effect of Heavy Rain | |
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| The Effect of Propeller Icing | |
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| The Effect of Airframe Icing | |
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| The Effect of Airframe-Surface Damage | |
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| The Effect of Turbulence | |
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| Windshear | |
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| The Effect of Windshear | |
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| Energy Loss | |
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| Energy Gain | |
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| Downdraught | |
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| Take-off | |
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| Landing | |
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| Countering Windshear | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 17 | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Summary | |
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| Aerofoil-Profile Definitions | |
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| Aerofoil-Attitude Definitions | |
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| Wing-Shape Definitions | |
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| High-Speed Definitions | |
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| Propeller Definitions | |
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| V Speeds | |
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| PoF Formulae | |
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| Drag | |
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| Wing Loading/Load Factor | |
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| Stalling Speed Calculations | |
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| Mass Change | |
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| Load Factor | |
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| Turn | |
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| Design Manoeuvre Speed (Va) | |
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| Turn Details | |
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| Radius of Turn | |
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| Rate of Turn | |
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| ClimbCalculations | |
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| Descent Calculations | |
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| Maximum Glide Range | |
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| Mach Angle (_) Calculation | |
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| KEY FACTS | |
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| Stalling | |
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| The Maximum Coefficient of Lift (Clmax) | |
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| The Critical Angle | |
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| The Stalling Speed | |
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| Stability | |
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| Static Stability | |
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| Dynamic Stability | |
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| The Stick Force | |
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| The Gust Load Factor | |
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| Propellers | |
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| Propeller Efficiency | |
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| Fixed Pitch Angle of Attack | |
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| Propeller Gyroscopic Effect | |
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| The Effect of the Variables on Performance | |
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| Airframe Surface | |
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| Airframe Surface | |
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| Altitude | |
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| Aspect Ratio | |
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| Camber | |
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| CG Position | |
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| Flap | |
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| Sweepback | |
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| Dihedral | |
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| Mass | |
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| Self-Assessment Exercise 18 | |
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| Solutions | |
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| Vx and Vy Mathematical Proof | |
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| Index | |