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| An Introduction to Contemporary Educational Testing And Measurement | |
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| Tests Are Only Tools: Their Usefulness Can Vary | |
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| Why We Developed This Text: Enhancing Test Usefulness | |
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| Technical Adequacy | |
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| Test User Competency | |
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| Matching the Test's Intended Purpose | |
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| Matching Diverse Test-Takers to the Test | |
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| Test Results and Diversity Considerations | |
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| Tests Are Only Tools: A Video Beats a Photo | |
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| Defining Some Test-Related Terms | |
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| Tests, Assessments, and the Assessment Process | |
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| Types of Tests/Assessments | |
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| Recent Developments: Impact on Classroom Testing and Measurement | |
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| Education Reform Meets Special Education Reform: NCLB and IDEIA | |
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| The Impact on Regular Education Teachers of the IDEIA and NCLB | |
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| Other Trends: Technology, Globalization, and International Competitiveness | |
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| Competency Testing for Teachers | |
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| Increased Interest from Professional Groups | |
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| A Professional Association-Book Publisher Information Initiative | |
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| Effects on the Classroom Teacher | |
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| About the Text | |
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| What if You're �No Good in Math� | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Discussion | |
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| High-Stakes Testing | |
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| Comparing NCLB and State High-Stakes Testing Programs | |
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| High-Stakes Testing: A Nationwide Phenomenon | |
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| High-Stakes Tests Are Only Tools | |
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| Why Does High-Stakes Testing Matter? | |
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| Promotion and Graduation Decisions Affect Students | |
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| Principal and Teacher Incentives Are Linked to HST Performance | |
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| Property Values, Business Decisions, and Politics and HST | |
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| The Lake Wobegon Effect and HST | |
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| The History of High-Stakes Testing | |
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| Education Reform | |
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| Standards-Based Reform | |
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| Types of High-Stakes Tests | |
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| Criterion-Referenced High-Stakes Tests | |
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| Norm-Referenced High-Stakes Tests | |
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| Benchmark Tests and High-Stakes Tests | |
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| The High-Stakes Testing Backlash | |
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| Is There Really a High-Stakes Testing Backlash? | |
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| What Do National Organizations Say About High-Stakes Tests? | |
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| AERA's Twelve Conditions for HST Programs | |
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| How Can a Teacher Use the Twelve Conditions? | |
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| Helping Students (and Yourself) Prepare for High-Stakes Tests | |
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| Focus on the Task, Not Your Feelings About It | |
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| Inform Students and Parents About the Importance of the Test | |
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| Teach Test-Taking Skills as Part of Regular Instruction | |
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| As the Test Day Approaches, Respond to Student Questions Openly and Directly | |
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| Take Advantage of Whatever Preparation Materials Are Available | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Discussion | |
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| Response-to-Intervention (RTI) and the Regular Classroom Teacher | |
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| What Is RTI? | |
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| What if You Have Not Heard of RTI Before? | |
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| How New Is RTI? | |
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| Do Regular Education Teachers Need to Know About RTI? | |
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| An RTI Scenario | |
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| How Important Is RTI to Regular Education Teachers? | |
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| Can a Special Education Law Reform Regular Education? | |
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| How Is RTI Supposed to Help Students and Schools? | |
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| RTI Definitions, Components, and Implementation Approaches | |
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| RTI Definitions | |
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| RTI Components | |
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| RTI Implementation Approaches | |
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| How Widely Is RTI Being Implemented1? | |
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| Some Benefits of RTI | |
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| RTI: The Promise and Some Controversies | |
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| Technical Issues: Reliability, Validity, and Fairness | |
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| Implementation Issues | |
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| The Purpose Of Testing | |
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| Testing, Accountability, and the Classroom Teacher | |
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| Types of Educational Decisions | |
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| A Pinch of Salt | |
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| �Pinching� in the Classroom | |
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| What to Measure | |
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| How to Measure | |
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| Written Tests | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Discussion | |
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| Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests and Content Validity Evidence | |
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| Defining Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests | |
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| Comparing Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests | |
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| Differences in the Construction of Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests | |
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| Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Tests and Linguistic and Cultural Diversity | |
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| Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Tests and Validity Evidence | |
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| A Three-Stage Model of Classroom Measurement | |
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| Why Objectives? Why Not Just Write Test Items? | |
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| Where Do Goals Come From? | |
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| Are There Different Kinds of Goals and Objectives? | |
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| How Can Instructional Objectives Make a Teacher's Job Easier? | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Discussion | |
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| Measuring Learning Outcomes | |
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| Writing Instructional Objectives | |
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| Identifying Learning Outcomes | |
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| Identifying Observable and Directly Measurable Learning Outcomes | |
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| Stating Conditions | |
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| Stating Criterion Levels | |
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| Keeping It Simple and Straightforward | |
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| Matching Test Items to Instructional Objectives | |
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| Taxonomy of Educational Objectives | |
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| Cognitive Domain | |
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| Affective Domain | |
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| The Psychomotor Domain | |
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| The Test Blueprint | |
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| Content Outline | |
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| Categories | |
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| Number of Items | |
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| Functions | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Practice | |
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| Writing Objective Test Items | |
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| Which Format? | |
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| True-False Items | |
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| Suggestions for Writing True-False Items | |
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| Matching Items | |
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| Faults Inherent in Matching Items | |
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| Suggestions for Writing Matching Items | |
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| Multiple-Choice Items | |
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| Higher-Level Multiple-Choice Questions | |
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| Suggestions for Writing Multiple-Choice Items | |
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| Completion Items | |
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| Suggestions for Writing Completion Items | |
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| Gender and Racial Bias in Test Items | |
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| Guidelines for Writing Test Items | |
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| Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Objective Item Formats | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Practice | |
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| Writing Essay Test Items | |
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| What Is an Essay Item? | |
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| Essay Items Should Measure Complex Cognitive Skills or Processes | |
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| Essay Items: Extended or Restricted Response | |
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| Examples of Restricted Response Essays | |
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| Pros and Cons of Essay Items | |
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| Advantages of the Essay Item | |
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| Disadvantages of the Essay Item | |
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| Suggestions for Writing Essay Items | |
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| Scoring Essay Questions | |
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| Scoring Extended Response and Higher Level Questions | |
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| General Essay Scoring Suggestions | |
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| Assessing Knowledge Organization | |
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| Open-Book Questions and Exams | |
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| Some Open-Book Techniques | |
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| Guidelines for Planning Essays, Knowledge Organization, and Open-Book Questions and Exams | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Practice | |
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| Performance-Based Assessment | |
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| Performance Tests: Direct Measures of Competence | |
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| Performance Tests Can Assess Processes and Products | |
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| Performance Tests Can Be Embedded in Lessons | |
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| Performance Tests Can Assess Affective and Social Skills | |
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| Developing Performance Tests for Your Learners | |
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| Deciding What to Test | |
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| Designing the Assessment Context | |
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| Specifying the Scoring Rubrics | |
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| Specifying Testing Constraints | |
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| A Final Word | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Discussion and Practice | |
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| Portfolio Assessment | |
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| Ensuring Validity of the Portfolio | |
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| Developing Portfolio Assessments | |
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| Deciding on the Purposes for a Portfolio | |
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| Identifying Cognitive Skills and Dispositions | |
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| Deciding Who Will Plan the Portfolio | |
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| Deciding Which Products to Put in the Portfolio and How Many Samples of Each Product | |
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| Building the Portfolio Rubrics | |
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| Developing a Procedure to Aggregate All Portfolio Ratings | |
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| Determining the Logistics | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Practice | |
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| Administering, Analyzing, And Improving The Test Or Assessment | |
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| Assembling the Test | |
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| Packaging the Test | |
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| Reproducing the Test | |
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| Administering the Test | |
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| Scoring the Test | |
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| Analyzing the Test | |
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| Quantitative Item Analysis | |
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| Qualitative Item Analysis | |
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| Item Analysis Modifications for the Criterion-Referenced Test | |
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| Debriefing | |
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| Debriefing Guidelines | |
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| The Process of Evaluating Classroom Achievement | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Practice | |
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| Marks And Marking Systems | |
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| What Is the Purpose of a Mark? | |
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| Why Be Concerned About Marking? | |
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| What Should a Mark Reflect? | |
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| Marking Systems | |
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| Types of Comparisons | |
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| Types of Symbols | |
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| Combining and Weighting the Components of a Mark | |
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| Who Is the Better Teacher? | |
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| Combining Grades into a Single Mark | |
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| Practical Approaches to Equating Before Weighting in the Busy Classroom | |
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| Front-End Equating | |
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| Back-End Equating | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Practice | |
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| Summarizing Data And Measures Of Central Tendency | |
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| What Are Statistics? | |
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| Why Use Statistics? | |
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| Tabulating Frequency Data | |
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| The List | |
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| The Simple Frequency Distribution | |
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| The Grouped Frequency Distribution | |
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| Steps in Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution | |
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| Graphing Data | |
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| The Bar Graph, or Histogram | |
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| The Frequency Polygon | |
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| The Smooth Curve | |
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| Measures of Central Tendency | |
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| The Mean | |
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| The Median | |
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| The Mode | |
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| The Measures of Central Tendency in Various Distributions | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Practice | |
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| Variability, The Normal Distribution, And Converted Scores | |
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| The Range | |
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| The Semi-Interquartile Range (SIQR) | |
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| The Standard Deviation | |
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| The Deviation Score Method for Computing the Standard Deviation | |
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| The Raw Score Method for Computing the Standard Deviation | |
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| The Normal Distribution | |
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| Properties of the Normal Distribution | |
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| Converted Scores | |
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| z-Scores | |
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| T-Scores | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Practice | |
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| Correlation | |
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| The Correlation Coefficient | |
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| Strength of a Correlation | |
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| Direction of a Correlation | |
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| Scatterplots | |
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| Where Does r Come From? | |
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| Causality | |
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| Other Interpretive Cautions | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Practice | |
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| Validity Evidence | |
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| Why Evaluate Tests? | |
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| Types of Validity Evidence | |
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| Content Validity Evidence | |
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| Criterion-Related Validity Evidence | |
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| Construct Validity Evidence | |
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| What Have We Been Saying? A Review | |
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| Interpreting Validity Coefficients | |
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| Content Validity Evidence | |
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| Concurrent and Predictive Validity Evidence | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Practice | |
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| Reliability | |
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| Methods of Estimating Reliability | |
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| Test-Retest or Stability | |
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| Alternate Forms or Equivalence | |
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| Internal Consistency | |
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| Interpreting Reliability Coefficients | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Practice | |
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| Error-What Is It? | |
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| The Standard Error of Measurement | |
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| Using the Standard Error of Measurement | |
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| More Applications | |
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| Standard Deviation or Standard Error of Measurement? | |
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| Why All the Fuss About Error? | |
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| Error Within Test-Takers | |
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| Error Within the Test | |
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| Error in Test Administration | |
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| Error in Scoring | |
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| Sources of Error Influencing Various Reliability Coefficients | |
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| Test-Retest | |
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| Alternate Forms | |
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| Internal Consistency | |
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| Band Interpretation | |
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| Steps: Band Interpretation | |
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| A Final Word | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Practice | |
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| Standardized Tests | |
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| What Is a Standardized Test? | |
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| Do Test Stimuli, Administration, and Scoring Have to Be Standardized? | |
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| Standardized Testing: Effects of Accommodations and Alternative Assessments | |
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| Uses of Standardized Achievement Tests | |
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| Will Performance and Portfolio Assessment Make Standardized Tests Obsolete? | |
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| Administering Standardized Tests | |
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| Types of Scores Offered for Standardized Achievement Tests | |
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| Grade Equivalents | |
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| Age Equivalents | |
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| Percentile Ranks | |
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| Standard Scores | |
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| Interpreting Standardized Tests: Test and Student Factors | |
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| Test-Related Factors | |
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| Student-Related Factors | |
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| Aptitude-Achievement Discrepancies | |
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| Interpreting Standardized Tests: Parent-Teacher Conferences and Educational Decision Making | |
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| An Example: Pressure to Change an Educational Placement | |
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| A Second Example: Pressure from the Opposite Direction | |
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| Interpreting Standardized Tests: Score Reports from Publishers | |
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| The Press-On Label | |
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| A Criterion-Referenced Skills Analysis or Mastery Report | |
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| An Individual Performance Profile | |
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| Other Publisher Reports and Services | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Practice | |
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| Types of Standardized Tests | |
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| Standardized Achievement Tests | |
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| Achievement Test Batteries, or Survey Batteries | |
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| Single-Subject Achievement Tests | |
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| Diagnostic Achievement Aptitude Tests | |
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| Standardized Academic Aptitude Tests420 | |
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| The History of Academic Aptitude Testing | |
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| Stability of IQ Scores | |
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| What Do IQ Tests Predict? | |
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| Individually Administered Academic Aptitude Tests | |
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| Group-Administered Academic Aptitude Tests | |
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| Standardized Personality Assessment Instruments | |
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| What Is Personality? | |
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| Objective Personality Tests | |
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| Projective Personality Tests | |
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| Summary | |
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| For Discussion | |
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| In The Classroom: A Summary Dialogue | |
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| High-Stakes Testing and NCLB | |
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| Response-to-intervention (RTI) | |
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| Criterion-Referenced Versus Norm-Referenced Tests | |
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| New Responsibilities for Teachers Under IDEIA | |
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| Instructional Objectives | |
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| The Test Blueprint | |
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| Essay Items and the Essay Scoring Guides | |
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| Reliability, Validity Evidence, and Test Statistics | |
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| Grades And Marks | |
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| Some Final Thoughts | |
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| Math Skills Review | |
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| Preparing For The Praxis II: Principles Of Learning And Teaching Assessment | |
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| Determining The Median When There Are Multiple Tied Middle Scores | |
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| Pearson Product-Moment Correlation | |
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| Statistics And Measurement Texts | |
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| Answers for Practice Questions | |
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| Suggested Readings | |
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| References | |
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| Credits | |
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| Index | |