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| Scientific Thinking in Psychology | |
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| Why Take This Course? | |
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| Ways of Knowing | |
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| Authority | |
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| Use of Reason | |
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| Experience | |
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| The Ways of Knowing and Science | |
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| Science as a Way of Knowing | |
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| Science Assumes Determinism | |
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| Science Makes Systematic Observations | |
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| Science Produces Public Knowledge | |
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| Origins-A Taste of Introspection | |
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| Science Produces Data-Based Conclusions | |
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| Science Produces Tentative Conclusions | |
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| Science Asks Answerable Questions | |
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| Science Develops Theories that Can Be Disproven | |
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| Psychological Science and Pseudoscience | |
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| Recognizing Pseudoscience | |
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| Associates with True Science | |
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| Classic Studies-Disproving Phrenology | |
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| Relies on Anecdotal Evidence | |
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| Sidesteps Disproof | |
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| Reduces Complex Phenomena to Overly Simplistic Concepts | |
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| The Goals of Research in Psychology | |
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| Description | |
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| Prediction | |
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| Explanation | |
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| Application | |
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| A Passion for Research in Psychology | |
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| Eleanor Gibson (1910-2002) | |
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| B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) | |
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| Ethics in Psychological Research | |
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| Classic Studies-Infants at Risk | |
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| Developing the APA Code of Ethics | |
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| Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans | |
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| Judging Benefits and Costs: The IRB | |
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| Informed Consent and Deception in Research | |
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| Ethics-Historical Problems with Informed Consent | |
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| Informed Consent and Special Populations | |
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| Treating Participants Well | |
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| Research Ethics and the Internet | |
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| Ethical Guidelines for Research with Animals | |
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| The Issue of Animal Rights | |
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| Origins-Antivivisection and the APA | |
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| Using Animals in Psychological Research | |
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| The APA Code for Animal Research | |
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| Justifying the Study | |
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| Caring for the Animals | |
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| Using Animals for Educational Purposes | |
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| Scientific Fraud | |
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| Data Falsification | |
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| Developing Ideas for Research in Psychology | |
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| Varieties of Psychological Research | |
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| Basic versus Applied Research | |
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| The Setting: Laboratory versus Field Research | |
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| Ethics-A Matter of Privacy | |
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| Quantitative versus Qualitative Research | |
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| Asking Empirical Questions | |
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| Operational Definitions | |
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| Developing Research from Observations of Behavior and Serendipity | |
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| Origins-Serendipity and Edge Detectors | |
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| Developing Research from Theory | |
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| The Nature of Theory | |
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| The Relationship between Theory and Data | |
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| Attributes of Good Theories | |
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| Falsification | |
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| Classic Studies -Falsification and Der Kluge Hans | |
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| Parsimony | |
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| Misunderstandings About Theories | |
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| Developing Research from Other Research | |
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| Research Teams and the "What's Next?" Question | |
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| Replication and Extension | |
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| Creative Thinking in Science | |
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| Reviewing the Literature | |
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| Computerized Database Searches | |
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| Search Tips | |
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| Measurement and Data Analysis | |
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| What to Measure-Varieties of Behavior | |
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| Developing Measures from Constructs | |
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| Origins-Reaction Time: From Mental Chronometry to Mental Rotation | |
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| Evaluating Measures | |
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| Reliability | |
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| Validity | |
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| Reliability and Validity | |
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| Scales of Measurement | |
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| Nominal Scales | |
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| Ordinal Scales | |
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| Interval Scales | |
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| Classic Studies-Measuring Somatotypes on an Interval Scale: Hoping for 4-4-4 | |
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| Ratio Scales | |
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| Statistical Analysis | |
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| Descriptive and Inferential Statistics | |
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| Descriptive Statistics | |
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| Ethics-Lying with Statistics | |
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| Inferential Statistics | |
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| Hypothesis Testing | |
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| Type I and Type II Errors | |
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| Inferential Analysis | |
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| Interpreting Failures to Reject H<sub>0</sub> | |
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| Going Beyond Hypothesis Testing | |
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| Effect Size | |
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| Confidence Intervals | |
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| Power | |
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| Introduction to Experimental Research | |
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| Essential Features of Experimental Research | |
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| Origins-John Stuart Mill and the Rules of Inductive Logic | |
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| Establishing Independent Variables | |
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| Varieties of Independent Variables | |
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| Control Groups | |
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| Controlling Extraneous Variables | |
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| Measuring Dependent Variables | |
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| Manipulated versus Subject Variables | |
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| Drawing Conclusions When Using Subject Variables | |
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| Classic Studies-Bobo Dolls and Aggression | |
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| The Validity of Experimental Research | |
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| Statistical Conclusion Validity | |
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| Construct Validity | |
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| External Validity | |
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| Other Populations | |
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| Ethics-Recruiting Participants: Everyone's in the Pool | |
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| Other Environments | |
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| Other Times | |
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| A Note of Caution | |
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| Internal Validity | |
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| Threats to Internal Validity | |
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| Studies Extending Over a Period of Time | |
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| History and Maturation | |
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| Regression | |
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| Testing and Instrumentation | |
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| Participant Problems | |
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| Subject Selection Effects | |
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| Attrition | |
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| Control Problems in Experimental Research | |
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| Between-Subjects Designs | |
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| The Problem of Creating Equivalent Groups | |
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| Random Assignment | |
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| Matching | |
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| Within-Subjects Designs | |
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| The Problem of Controlling Sequence Effects | |
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| Testing Once per Condition | |
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| Complete Counterbalancing | |
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| Partial Counterbalancing | |
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| Testing More Than Once per Condition | |
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| Reverse Counterbalancing | |
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| Block Randomization | |
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| Control Problems in Developmental Research | |
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| Classic Studies-The Record for Repeated Measures | |
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| Problems with Biasing | |
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| Experimenter Bias | |
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| Controlling for Experimenter Bias | |
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| Participant Bias | |
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| Origins-Productivity at Western Electric | |
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| Controlling for Participant Bias | |
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| Ethics-Research Participants Have Responsibilities Too | |
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| Experimental Design I: Single-Factor Designs | |
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| Single Factor-Two Levels | |
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| Between-Subjects, Single-Factor Designs | |
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| Within-Subjects, Single-Factor Designs | |
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| Classic Studies-Psychology's Most Widely Replicated Finding? | |
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| Analyzing Single-Factor, Two-Level Designs | |
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| Single Factor-More Than Two Levels | |
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| Between-Subjects, Multilevel Designs | |
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| Origins-Nonlinear Results: The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve | |
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| Within-Subjects, Multilevel Designs | |
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| Presenting the Data | |
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| Types of Graphs | |
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| Analyzing Single-Factor, Multilevel Designs | |
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| Control Group Designs | |
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| Placebo Control Groups | |
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| Waiting List Control Groups | |
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| Ethics-Who's in the Control Group? | |
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| Yoked Control Groups | |
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| Experimental Design II: Factorial Designs | |
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| Factorial Essentials | |
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| Identifying Factorial Designs | |
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| Outcomes-Main Effects and Interactions | |
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| Main Effects | |
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| Interactions | |
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| Interactions Sometimes Trump Main effects | |
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| Combinations of Main Effects and Interactions | |
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| Classic Studies-To Sleep, Perchance to Recall | |
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| Varieties of Factorial Designs | |
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| Mixed Factorial Designs | |
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| Factorials with Subject and Manipulated Variables: P x E Designs | |
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| Recruiting Participants for Factorial Designs | |
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| Ethics-On Being a Competent and Ethical researcher | |
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| Analyzing Factorial Designs | |
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| Origins-Factorials Down on the Farm | |
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| Correlational Research | |
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| Psychology's Two Disciplines | |
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| Origins-Galton's Studies of Genius | |
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| Correlation and Regression-The Basics | |
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| Positive and Negative Correlations | |
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| Scatterplots | |
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| Assuming Linearity | |
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| Restricting the Range | |
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| Coefficient of Determination-r<sup>2</sup><sup> </sup> | |
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| Regression Analysis-Making Predictions | |
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| Interpreting Correlations | |
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| Correlations and Causality | |
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| Directionality | |
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| Third Variables | |
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| Caution: Correlational Statistics versus Correlational Research | |
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| Using Correlations | |
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| The Need for Correlational Research | |
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| Varieties of Correlational Research | |
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| Ethics-APA Guidelines for Psychological Testing | |
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| Classic Studies-The Achieving Society | |
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| Multivariate Analysis | |
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| Multiple Regression | |
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| Factor Analysis | |
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| Quasi-Experimental Designs and Applied Research | |
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| Beyond the Laboratory | |
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| Applied Psychology in Historical Context | |
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| Origins-The Hollingworths, Applied Psychology, and Coca-Cola | |
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| Design Problems in Applied Research | |
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| Quasi-Experimental Designs | |
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| Nonequivalent Control Group Designs | |
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| Outcomes | |
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| Regression and Matching | |
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| Interrupted Time Series Designs | |
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| Outcomes | |
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| Variations on the Basic Time Series Design | |
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| Research Using Archival Data | |
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| Program Evaluation | |
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| Classic Studies-Reforms as Experiments | |
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| Planning for Programs-Needs Analysis | |
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| Monitoring Programs-Formative Evaluation | |
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| Evaluating Outcomes-Summative Evaluation | |
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| Weighing Costs-Cost-Effectiveness Analysis | |
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| A Note on Qualitative Analysis | |
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| Ethics-Evaluation Research and Ethics | |
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| Small N Designs | |
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| Research in Psychology Began with Small N | |
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| Origins-Cats in Puzzle Boxes | |
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| Reasons for Small N Designs | |
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| Misleading Results from Statistical Summaries of Grouped Data | |
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| Practical Problems with Large N Designs | |
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| The Experimental Analysis of Behavior | |
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| Operant Conditioning | |
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| Applied Behavior Analysis | |
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| Ethics-Controlling Human Behavior | |
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| Small N Designs in Applied Behavior Analysis | |
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| Elements of Single-Subject Designs | |
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| Withdrawal Designs | |
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| Multiple Baseline Designs | |
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| Changing Criterion Designs | |
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| Other Designs | |
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| Evaluating Single-Subject Designs | |
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| Case Study Designs | |
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| Classic Studies-The Mind of a Mnemonist | |
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| Evaluating Case Studies | |
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| Observational and Survey Research Methodsl | |
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| Observational Research | |
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| Varieties of Observational Research | |
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| Naturalistic Observation | |
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| Participant Observation | |
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| Classic Studies-When Prophecy Fails | |
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| Challenges Facing Observational Methods | |
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| Absence of Control | |
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| Observer Bias | |
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| Participant Reactivity | |
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| Ethics | |
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| Survey Research | |
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| Origins-Creating the "Questionary" | |
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| Probability Sampling | |
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| Random Sampling | |
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| Stratified Sampling | |
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| Cluster Sampling | |
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| Varieties of Survey Methods | |
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| Interviews | |
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| Phone Surveys | |
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| Electronic Surveys | |
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| Written Surveys | |
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| Creating an Effective Survey | |
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| Types of Survey Questions or Statements | |
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| Assessing Memory and Knowledge | |
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| Adding Demographic Information | |
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| A Key Problem: Survey Wording | |
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| Surveys and Ethics | |
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| Ethics-Using and Abusing Surveys | |
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| Epilogue | |
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| What I Learned in My Research Methods Course | |
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| A Passion for Research in Psychology | |
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| Elliot Aronson | |
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| Elizabeth Loftus | |
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| Communicating the Results of Research in Psychology | |
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| Research Reports, APA Style | |
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| General Guidelines | |
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| Writing Style | |
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| Reducing Bias in Language | |
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| Avoiding Plagiarism | |
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| Miscellaneous | |
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| Main Sections of the Lab Report | |
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| Title Page | |
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| The Manuscript Page Header/Page Number | |
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| Running Head | |
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| Title/Author/Affiliation | |
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| Abstract | |
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| Introduction | |
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| APA Citation Format | |
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| Method | |
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| Results | |
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| Reporting the Data: Statistics | |
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| Portraying the Data: Tables and Figures | |
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| Discussion | |
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| References | |
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| Presentations and Posters | |
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| Tips for Presenting a Paper | |
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| Tips for Presenting a Poster | |
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| Applications Exercises | |
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| A Sample Lab Report | |
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| The Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association | |
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| Research and Publication | |
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| Answers to Selected End-of-Chapter Applications Exercises | |
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| Glossary | |
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| References | |
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| Name index | |
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| Subject index | |
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| Summary of Research Examples | |