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| Preface | |
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| Historical Background | |
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| History of Microorganisms in Food | |
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| Historical Developments | |
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| Food Preservation | |
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| Food Spoilage | |
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| Food Poisoning | |
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| Food Legislation | |
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| Habitats, Taxonomy, and Growth Parameters | |
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| Taxonomy, Role, and Significance of Microorganisms in Foods | |
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| Bacterial Taxonomy | |
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| rRNA Analyses | |
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| Analysis of DNA | |
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| Primary Sources of Microorganisms Found in Foods | |
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| Synopsis of Common Foodborne Bacteria | |
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| Synopsis of Common Genera of Foodborne Molds | |
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| Synopsis of Common Genera of Foodborne Yeasts | |
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| Intrinsic and Extrinsic Parameters of Foods That Affect Microbial Growth | |
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| Intrinsic Parameters | |
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| pH | |
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| Moisture Content | |
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| Oxidation-Reduction Potential | |
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| Nutrient Content | |
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| Antimicrobial Constituents | |
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| Biological Structures | |
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| Extrinsic Parameters | |
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| Temperature of Storage | |
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| Relative Humidity of Environment | |
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| Presence and Concentration of Gases in the Environment | |
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| Presence and Activities of Other Microorganisms | |
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| Combined Intrinsic and Extrinsic Parameters: The Hurdle Concept | |
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| Microorganisms in Foods | |
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| Fresh Meats and Poultry | |
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| Biochemical Events That Lead To Rigor Mortis | |
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| The Biota of Meats and Poultry | |
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| Incidence/Prevalence of Microorganisms in Fresh Red Meats | |
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| Soy-Extended Ground Meats | |
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| Mechanically Deboned Meat, Poultry, and Fish | |
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| Hot-Boned Meats | |
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| Organ and Variety Meats | |
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| Microbial Spoilage of Fresh Red Meats | |
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| Spoilage of Fresh Livers | |
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| Incidence/Prevalence of Microorganisms in Fresh Poultry | |
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| Microbial Spoilage of Poultry | |
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| Carcass Sanitizing/Washing | |
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| Processed Meats | |
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| Curing | |
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| Smoking | |
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| Sausage, Bacon, Bologna, and Related Products | |
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| Bacon and Cured Hams | |
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| Fermented Meat Products | |
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| Seafoods | |
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| Microbiological Quality of Various Fresh and Frozen Products | |
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| Fermented Fish Products | |
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| Spoilage of Fish and Shellfish | |
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| Fermentation and Fermented Dairy Products | |
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| Fermentation | |
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| Background | |
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| Defined and Characterized | |
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| The Lactic Acid Bacteria | |
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| Metabolic Pathways and Molar Growth Yields | |
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| Dairy Products | |
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| Milk Biota | |
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| Starter Cultures, Products | |
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| Cheeses | |
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| Apparent Health Benefits of Fermented Milks | |
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| Lactose Intolerance | |
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| Cholesterol | |
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| Anticancer Effects | |
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| Probiotics | |
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| Diseases Caused by Lactic Acid Bacteria | |
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| Fruit and Vegetable Products: Whole, Fresh-Cut, and Fermented | |
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| Fresh and Frozen Vegetables | |
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| Spoilage | |
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| Spoilage of Fruits | |
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| Fresh-Cut Produce | |
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| Microbial Load | |
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| Pathogens | |
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| Fermented Products | |
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| Breads | |
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| Olives, Pickles, and Sauerkraut | |
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| Beer, Ale, Wines, Cider, and Distilled Spirits | |
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| Miscellaneous Fermented Products | |
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| Miscellaneous Food Products | |
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| Delicatessen and Related Foods | |
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| Eggs | |
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| Mayonnaise and Salad Dressing | |
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| Cereals, Flour, and Dough Products | |
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| Bakery Products | |
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| Frozen Meat Pies | |
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| Sugar, Candies, and Spices | |
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| Nutmeats | |
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| Dehydrated Foods | |
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| Enteral Nutrient Solutions (Medical Foods) | |
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| Single-Cell Protein | |
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| Rationale for SCP Production | |
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| Organisms and Fermentation Substrates | |
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| SCP Products | |
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| Nutrition and Safety of SCP | |
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| Determining Microorganisms and/or Their Products in Foods | |
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| Culture, Microscopic, and Sampling Methods | |
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| Conventional Standard Plate Count | |
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| Homogenization of Food Samples | |
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| The Spiral Plater | |
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| Membrane Filters | |
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| Direct Epifluorescent Filter Technique | |
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| Microcolony-DEFT | |
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| Hydrophobic Grid Membrane Filter | |
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| Microscope Colony Counts | |
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| Agar Droplets | |
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| Dry Film and Related Methods | |
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| Most Probable Numbers | |
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| Dye Reduction | |
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| Roll Tubes | |
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| Direct Microscopic Count | |
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| Microbiological Examination of Surfaces | |
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| Swab/Swab-Rinse Methods | |
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| Contact Plate | |
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| Agar Syringe/"Agar Sausage" Methods | |
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| Other Surface Methods | |
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| Metabolically Injured Organisms | |
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| Recovery/Repair | |
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| Mechanism | |
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| Viable but Nonculturable Organisms | |
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| Physical, Chemical, Molecular, and Immunological Methods | |
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| Physical Methods | |
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| Impedance and Related | |
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| Microcalorimetry | |
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| Flow Cytometry | |
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| Chemical Methods | |
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| Thermostable Nuclease | |
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| Limulus Lysate for Endotoxins | |
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| Adenosine Triphosphate Measurement | |
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| Radiometry | |
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| Fluorogenic and Chromogenic Substrates | |
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| Lux Gene Luminescence | |
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| Ice Nucleation Assay | |
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| Methods for Characterizing and Fingerprinting Foodborne Organisms | |
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| Serotyping | |
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| Bacteriophage Typing | |
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| Nucleic Acid (DNA) Probes | |
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| DNA Amplification (Polymerase Chain Reaction) | |
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| Multilocus Enzyme Electrophoresis Typing | |
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| Restriction Enzyme Analysis | |
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| Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA | |
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| Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis | |
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| Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism | |
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| Ribotyping | |
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| Immunological Methods | |
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| Fluorescent Antibody | |
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| Enrichment Serology | |
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| Salmonella 1-2 Test | |
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| Radioimmunoassay | |
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| ELISA | |
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| Gel Diffusion | |
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| Immunomagnetic Separation | |
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| Hemagglutination | |
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| Bioassay and Related Methods | |
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| Whole-Animal Assays | |
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| Mouse Lethality | |
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| Suckling (Infant) Mouse | |
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| Rabbit and Mouse Diarrhea | |
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| Monkey Feeding | |
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| Kitten (Cat) Test | |
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| Rabbit and Guinea Pig Skin Tests | |
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| Sereny and Anton Tests | |
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| Animal Models Requiring Surgical Procedures | |
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| Ligated Loop Techniques | |
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| The RITARD Model | |
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| Cell Culture Systems | |
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| Human Mucosal Cells | |
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| Human Fetal Intestine | |
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| Human Ileal and Intestinal Cells | |
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| Guinea Pig Intestinal Cells | |
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| HeLa Cells | |
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| Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells | |
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| Vero Cells | |
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| Y-1 Adrenal Cell Assay | |
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| Other Assays | |
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| Food Preservation and Some Properties of Psychrotrophs, Thermophiles, and Radiation-Resistant Bacteria | |
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| Food Preservation with Chemicals | |
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| Benzoic Acid and the Parabens | |
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| Sorbic Acid | |
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| The Propionates | |
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| Sulfur Dioxide and Sulfites | |
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| Nitrites and Nitrates | |
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| Organisms Affected | |
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| The Perigo Factor | |
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| Interaction with Cure Ingredients and Other Factors | |
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| Nitrosamines | |
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| Nitrite-Sorbate and other Nitrite Combinations | |
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| Mode of Action | |
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| Summary of Nitrite Effects | |
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| NaCl and Sugars | |
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| Indirect Antimicrobials | |
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| Antioxidants | |
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| Flavoring Agents | |
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| Spices and Essential Oils | |
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| Medium-Chain Fatty Acids and Esters | |
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| Acetic and Lactic Acids | |
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| Antibiotics and Bacteriocins | |
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| Nisin and Other Bacteriocins | |
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| Monensin | |
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| Natamycin | |
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| Tetracyclines | |
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| Subtilin | |
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| Tylosin | |
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| Antifungal Agents for Fruits | |
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| Ethylene and Propylene Oxides | |
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| Miscellaneous Chemical Preservatives | |
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| Food Preservation with Modified Atmospheres | |
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| Definitions | |
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| Hypobaric Storage | |
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| Vacuum Packaging | |
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| Modified Atmosphere Packaging | |
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| Equilibrium-Modified Atmosphere | |
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| Controlled-Atmosphere Packaging or Storage | |
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| Primary Effects of CO[subscript 2] on Microorganisms | |
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| Mode of Action | |
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| Food Products | |
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| Fresh and Processed Meats | |
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| Poultry | |
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| Seafoods | |
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| The Safety of MAP Foods | |
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| Clostridium botulinum | |
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| Listeria monocytogenes | |
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| Other Pathogens | |
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| Spoilage of MAP and Vacuum-Packaged Meats | |
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| Volatile Components of Vacuum-Packaged Meats and Poultry | |
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| Radiation Preservation of Foods and Nature of Microbial Radiation Resistance | |
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| Characteristics of Radiations of Interest in Food Preservation | |
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| Ultraviolet Light | |
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| Beta Rays | |
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| Gamma Rays | |
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| X-Rays | |
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| Microwaves | |
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| Principles Underlying the Destruction of Microorganisms by Irradiation | |
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| Types of Organisms | |
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| Numbers of Organisms | |
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| Composition of Suspending Menstrum (Food) | |
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| Presence or Absence of Oxygen | |
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| Physical State of Food | |
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| Age of Organisms | |
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| Processing of Foods for Irradiation | |
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| Selection of Foods | |
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| Cleaning of Foods | |
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| Packing | |
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| Blanching or Heat Treatment | |
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| Application of Radiation | |
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| Gamma Radiation | |
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| Electron Beams/Accelerated Electrons | |
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| Radappertization, Radicidation, and Radurization of Foods | |
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| Definitions | |
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| Radappertization | |
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| Radicidation | |
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| Radurization | |
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| Legal Status of Food Irradiation | |
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| Effect of Irradiation on Food Quality | |
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| Storage Stability of Irradiated Foods | |
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| Nature of Radiation Resistance of Microorganisms | |
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| Biology of Extremely Resistant Species | |
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| Apparent Mechanisms of Resistance | |
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| Low-Temperature Food Preservation and Characteristics of Psychrotrophic Microorganisms | |
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| Definitions | |
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| Temperature Growth Minima | |
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| Preparation of Foods for Freezing | |
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| Freezing of Foods and Freezing Effects | |
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| Storage Stability of Frozen Foods | |
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| Effect of Freezing on Microorganisms | |
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| Effects of Thawing | |
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| Some Characteristics of Psychrotrophs and Psychrophiles | |
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| The Effect of Low Temperatures on Microbial Physiologic Mechanisms | |
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| Nature of the Low Heat Resistance of Psychrotrophs | |
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| High-Temperature Food Preservation and Characteristics of Thermophilic Microorganisms | |
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| Factors Affecting Heat Resistance in Microorganisms | |
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| Water | |
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| Fat | |
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| Salts | |
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| Carbohydrates | |
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| pH | |
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| Proteins and Other Substances | |
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| Numbers of Organisms | |
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| Age of Organisms | |
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| Growth Temperature | |
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| Inhibitory Compounds | |
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| Time and Temperature | |
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| Effect of Ultrasonics | |
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| Relative Heat Resistance of Microorganisms | |
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| Spore Resistance | |
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| Thermal Destruction of Microorganisms | |
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| Thermal Death Time | |
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| D Value | |
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| z Value | |
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| F Value | |
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| Thermal Death Time Curve | |
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| 12-D Concept | |
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| Some Characteristics of Thermophiles | |
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| Enzymes | |
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| Ribosomes | |
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| Flagella | |
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| Other Aspects of Thermophilic Microorganisms | |
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| Nutrient Requirements | |
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| Oxygen Tension | |
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| Cellular Lipids | |
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| Cellular Membranes | |
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| Effect of Temperature | |
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| Genetics | |
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| Canned Food Spoilage | |
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| Low Acid | |
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| Acid | |
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| High Acid | |
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| Preservation of Foods by Drying | |
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| Preparation and Drying of Low-Moisture Foods | |
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| Effect of Drying on Microorganisms | |
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| Storage Stability of Dried Foods | |
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| Intermediate-Moisture Foods | |
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| Preparation of IMF | |
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| Microbial Aspects of IMF | |
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| Storage Stability of IMF | |
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| IMF and Glass Transition | |
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| Other Food Preservation Methods | |
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| High-Pressure Processing | |
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| Some Principles and Effects of HHP on Foods and Organisms | |
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| Effects of HHP on Specific Foodborne Organisms | |
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| Pulsed Electric Fields | |
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| Aseptic Packaging | |
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| Manothermosonication (Thermoultrasonication) | |
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| Indicators of Food Safety and Quality, Principles of Quality Control, and Microbial Criteria | |
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| Indicators of Food Microbial Quality and Safety | |
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| Indicators of Product Quality | |
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| Indicators of Food Safety | |
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| Coliforms | |
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| Enterococci | |
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| Bifidobacteria | |
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| Coliphages | |
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| The Possible Overuse of Fecal Indicator Organisms | |
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| Predictive Microbiology/Microbial Modeling | |
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| The HACCP System and Food Safety | |
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| Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point System | |
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| Prerequisite Programs | |
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| Definitions | |
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| HACCP Principles | |
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| Some Limitations of HACCP | |
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| Microbiological Criteria | |
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| Definitions | |
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| Sampling Plans | |
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| Microbiological Criteria and Food Safety | |
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| Microbiological Criteria for Various Products | |
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| Other Criteria/Guidelines | |
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| Foodborne Disease | |
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| Introduction to Foodborne Pathogens | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Fecal-Oral Transmission of Foodborne Pathogens | |
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| Host Invasion | |
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| "Universal" Requirements | |
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| Attachment Sites | |
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| Sigma Factors and the Acid Tolerance Response | |
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| Pathogenesis | |
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| Gram-Positive Bacteria | |
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| Gram-Negative Bacteria | |
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| Summary | |
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| Staphylococcal Gastroenteritis | |
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| Species of Concern in Foods | |
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| Habitat and Distribution | |
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| Incidence in Foods | |
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| Nutritional Requirements for Growth | |
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| Temperature Growth Range | |
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| Effect of Salts and Other Chemicals | |
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| Effect of pH, Water Activity, and Other Parameters | |
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| NaCl and pH | |
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| pH, a[subscript w], and Temperature | |
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| NaNO[subscript 2], Eh, pH, and Temperature of Growth | |
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| Staphylococcal Enterotoxins: Types and Incidence | |
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| Chemical and Physical Properties | |
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| Production | |
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| Mode of Action | |
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| The Gastroenteritis Syndrome | |
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| Incidence and Vehicle Foods | |
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| Ecology of S. aureus Growth | |
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| Prevention of Staphylococcal and Other Food-Poisoning Syndromes | |
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| Food Poisoning Caused by Gram-Positive Sporeforming Bacteria | |
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| Clostridium perfringens Food Poisoning | |
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| Distribution of C. perfringens | |
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| Characteristics of the Organism | |
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| The Enterotoxin | |
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| Vehicle Foods and Symptoms | |
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| Prevention | |
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| Botulism | |
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| Distribution of C. botulinum | |
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| Growth of C. botulinum Strains | |
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| Ecology of C. Botulinum Growth | |
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| Concerns for Sous Vide and Related Food Products | |
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| Nature of the Botulinal Neurotoxins | |
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| The Adult Botulism Syndrome: Incidence and Vehicle Foods | |
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| Infant Botulism | |
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| Bacillus Cereus Gastroenteritis | |
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| B. cereus Toxins | |
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| Diarrheal Syndrome | |
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| Emetic Syndrome | |
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| Foodborne Listeriosis | |
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| Taxonomy of Listeria | |
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| Serotypes | |
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| Subspecies Typing | |
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| Growth | |
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| Effect of pH | |
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| Combined Effect of pH and NaCl | |
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| Effect of Temperature | |
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| Effect of a[subscript w] | |
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| Distribution | |
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| The Environment | |
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| Foods and Humans | |
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| Prevalence | |
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| Thermal Properties | |
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| Dairy Products | |
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| Nondairy Products | |
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| Effect of Sublethal Heating on Thermotolerance | |
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| Virulence Properties | |
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| Listeriolysin O and Ivanolysin O | |
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| Intracellular Invansion | |
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| Monocytosis-Producing Activity | |
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| Sphingomyelinase | |
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| Animal Models and Infectious Dose | |
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| Incidence and Nature of the Listeriosis Syndromes | |
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| Incidence | |
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| Source of Pathogens | |
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| Syndromes | |
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| Resistance to Listeriosis | |
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| Persistence of L. monocytogenes in Foods | |
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| Regulatory Status of L. Monocytogenes in Foods | |
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| Foodborne Gastroenteritis Caused by Salmonella and Shigella | |
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| Salmonellosis | |
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| Serotyping of Salmonella | |
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| Distribution | |
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| Growth and Destruction of Salmonellae | |
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| The Salmonella Food-Poisoning Syndrome | |
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| Salmonella Virulence Properties | |
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| Incidence and Vehicle Foods | |
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| Prevention and Control of Salmonellosis | |
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| Competitive Exclusion to Reduce Salmonellae Carriage in Poultry | |
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| Shigellosis | |
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| Foodborne Cases | |
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| Virulence Properties | |
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| Foodborne Gastroenteritis Caused by Escherichia coli | |
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| Serological Classification | |
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| The Recognized Virulence Groups | |
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| Enteroaggregative E. coli | |
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| Enterohemorrhagic E. coli | |
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| Enteroinvasive E. coli | |
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| Enteropathogenic E. coli | |
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| Enterotoxigenic E. coli | |
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| Prevention | |
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| Travelers' Diarrhea | |
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| Foodborne Gastroenteritis Caused by Vibrio, Yersinia, and Campylobacter Species | |
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| Vibriosis (Vibrio parahaemolyticus) | |
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| Growth Conditions | |
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| Virulence Properties | |
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| Gastroenteritis Syndrome and Vehicle Foods | |
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| Other Vibrios | |
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| Vibrio cholerae | |
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| Vibrio vulnificus | |
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| Vibrio alginolyticus and V. hollisae | |
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| Yersiniosis (Yersinia enterocolitica) | |
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| Growth Requirements | |
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| Distribution | |
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| Serovars and Biovars | |
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| Virulence Factors | |
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| Incidence of Y. enterocolitica in Foods | |
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| Gastroenteritis Syndrome and Incidence | |
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| Campylobacteriosis (Campylobacter jejuni) | |
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| Distribution | |
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| Virulence Properties | |
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| Enteritis Syndrome and Prevalence | |
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| Prevention | |
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| Foodborne Animal Parasites | |
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| Protozoa | |
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| Giardiasis | |
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| Amebiasis | |
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| Toxoplasmosis | |
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| Sarcocystosis | |
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| Cryptosporidiosis | |
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| Cyclosporiasis | |
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| Flatworms | |
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| Fascioliasis | |
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| Fasciolopsiasis | |
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| Paragonimiasis | |
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| Clonorchiasis | |
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| Diphyllobothriasis | |
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| Cysticercosis/Taeniasis | |
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| Roundworms | |
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| Trichinosis | |
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| Anisakiasis | |
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| Mycotoxins | |
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| Aflatoxins | |
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| Alternaria Toxins | |
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| Citrinin | |
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| Ochratoxins | |
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| Patulin | |
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| Penicillic Acid | |
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| Sterigmatocystin | |
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| Fumonisins | |
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| Sambutoxin | |
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| Zearalenone | |
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| Control of Production | |
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| Viruses and Some Other Proven and Suspected Foodborne Biohazards | |
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| Viruses | |
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| Incidence in Foods and the Environment | |
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| Destruction in Foods | |
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| Hepatitis A Virus | |
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| Norwalk and Related Viruses | |
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| Rotaviruses | |
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| Bacteria and Prions | |
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| Histamine-Associated (Scombroid) Poisoning | |
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| Aeromonas | |
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| Plesiomonas | |
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| Bacteroides fragilis | |
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| Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae | |
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| Klebsiella pneumoniae | |
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| Streptococcus iniae | |
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| Prion Diseases | |
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| Toxigenic Phytoplanktons | |
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| Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning | |
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| Ciguatera Poisoning | |
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| Domoic Acid | |
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| Pfiesteria piscicida | |
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| Relationships of Common Foodborne Genera of Gram-Negative Bacteria | |
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| Relationship of Common Foodborne Genera of Gram-Positive Bacteria | |
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| Biofilms | |
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| Grouping of the Gram-Negative Asporogenous Rods, Polar-Flagellate, Oxidase Positive, and Not Sensitive to 2.5 IU Penicillin, on the Results of Four Other Tests | |
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| Index | |