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Preface | |
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Why Sound System Engineering? | |
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Prerequisites | |
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Basic Electrical Training | |
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Mathematics | |
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Hearing Versus Listening | |
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Craftsmanship | |
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Rigging | |
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Literacy | |
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The Art, Philosophy, and Science of Sound | |
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Fields | |
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Voices Out of the Past | |
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Significant Figures in the History of Audio and Acoustics | |
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1893-The Magic Year | |
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Bell Laboratories and Western Electric | |
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Harvey Fletcher (1884-1981) | |
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Harry Nyquist (1889-1976) | |
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The dB, dBm, and the VI | |
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Sound System Equalization | |
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Acoustic Measurements-Richard C. Heyser (1931-1987) | |
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Calculators and Computers | |
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The Meaning of Communication | |
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Historical Notes | |
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Sound and Our Brain | |
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The Human Brain | |
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The Current Era | |
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Unexpected Validation | |
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Psychoacoustics | |
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Motivations | |
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Sound Reproduction | |
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Is it Better to be Bora Blind or Deaf? | |
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Recording Sound at the Eardrum | |
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Psychoacoustics via a Metaphysical Foundation | |
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Barks, Bands, Equivalent Rectangular Bandwidths (ERBs), Phons and Sones | |
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Digital Theory | |
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Shannon's Theory | |
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Dynamic Range | |
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The Steps from Art to Science | |
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Moravec's Warning | |
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Digital Nomenclature | |
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What Is a Bit of Data? | |
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Bayesian Theory | |
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Planck System | |
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Bits, Nats, and Bans | |
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A Communication System | |
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Holography | |
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Mathematics for Audio Systems | |
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Engineering Calculations | |
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Precision, Accuracy, and Resolution | |
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Simple Numbers | |
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How to Add Gains and Losses Algebraically | |
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The Factor-Label System | |
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Basic Physical Terms | |
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Mathematical Operations | |
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Complex Number Operations | |
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Decade Calibration | |
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Converting Linear Scales to Logarithmic Scales | |
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Finding the Renard Series for Fractional Octave Spacing | |
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Radians and Steradians | |
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Calculating Percentages and Ratios | |
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Useful Math Tables | |
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Angles | |
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A Little Trigonometry | |
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The Origin of the Base of the Natural Logarithm, e | |
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The Complex Plane | |
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Euler's Theorem | |
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Examples | |
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Phasors | |
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Rates of Change | |
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Using the Decibel | |
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The Decibel | |
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The Neper | |
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Concepts Underlying the Decibel and Its Use in Sound Systems | |
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Measuring Electrical Power | |
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Levels in dB | |
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The Decibel in Acoustics-L<sub>P</sub>, L<sub>W</sub>, and L<sub>I</sub> | |
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Acoustic Intensity Level (L<sub>I</sub>), Acoustic Power Level (L<sub>W</sub>), and Acoustic Pressure Level (L<sub>P</sub>) | |
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Inverse Square Law | |
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Directivity Factor | |
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Ohm's Law | |
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A Decibel Is a Decibel Is a Decibel | |
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The Equivalent Level (LEQ) in Noise Measurements | |
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Combining Decibels | |
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Combining Voltage | |
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Using the Log Charts | |
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Finding the Logarithm of a Number to Any Base | |
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Semitone Intervals | |
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System Gain Changes | |
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The VU and the VI Instrument | |
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Calculating the Number of Decades in a Frequency Span | |
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Deflection of the Eardrum at Various Sound Levels | |
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The Phon | |
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The Tempered Scale | |
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Measuring Distortion | |
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The Acoustical Meaning of Harmonic Distortion | |
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Playback Systems in Studios | |
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Decibels and Percentages | |
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Summary | |
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Interfacing Electrical and Acoustic Systems | |
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Alternating Current Circuits | |
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Impedance | |
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Electric Power | |
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Properties of the LCR Circuit | |
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Filters | |
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Impedance Bridge | |
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Constant Resistance Networks | |
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Impedance Properties of Moving Coil Loudspeakers | |
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Network Theorems | |
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The Technician's Viewpoint | |
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Impedance Defined | |
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Handling the Acoustic Input and Output of the System | |
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Total Electrical Gain of a System | |
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Interfacing the Electrical Output Power to the Acoustic Environment | |
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Gain Structure Revisited | |
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Conclusion | |
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Loudspeaker Directivity and Coverage | |
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Essential Definitions | |
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Describing Q More Accurately | |
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Relationship Between C<sub>z</sub> and Q in an Idealized Case | |
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Idealized Loudspeaker Geometry | |
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Class D Audio Amplifiers | |
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Sound as a Weapon | |
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An Older View of Q | |
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Summary | |
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The Acoustic Environment | |
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The Acoustic Environment | |
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Dispersion and Diffusion | |
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Inverse Square Law | |
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Atmospheric Absorption | |
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Velocity of Sound | |
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Isothermal vs. Adiabatic | |
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Temperature-Dependent Velocity | |
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The Effect of Altitude on the Velocity of Sound in Air | |
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Typical Wavelengths | |
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Doppler Effect | |
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Reflection and Refraction | |
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Effect of a Space Heater on Flutter Echo | |
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Absorption | |
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Definitions in Acoustics | |
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Classifying Sound Fields | |
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The Acoustic Environment Indoors | |
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Conclusion | |
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Audio and Acoustic Measurements | |
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Acoustic Analysis Sans Instrumentation | |
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Initial Parameters | |
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Acoustic Tests of Sound Systems | |
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Examining AC Outlets | |
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The ETC Plot | |
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Site Surveys and Noise Criteria Curves | |
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An Improper Use of Real Time Analysis | |
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Evaluation of Listener Response | |
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Fractional Bandwidth Filter Analyzers | |
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Measuring Electromagnetic Pollution | |
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Conclusion | |
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Large Room Acoustics | |
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What Is a Large Room? | |
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Levels Defined: Sound Power Level (L<sub>W</sub>), Sound Intensity Level (L<sub>I</sub>), and Sound Pressure Level (L<sub>P</sub>) | |
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Levels in Enclosed Spaces | |
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Differentiating Between Reverberant Level and Reverberation Time | |
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Evaluation of Signal-to-Noise Ratio, SNR | |
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Analyzing Reflections and Their Paths | |
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Critical Distance | |
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Conclusion | |
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Small Room Acoustics | |
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Non-Statistical Spaces | |
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Small Room Acoustical Parameters | |
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Small Room Reverberation Times | |
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Small Room Resonances | |
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Modes | |
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What Is an Eigen Mode? | |
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Small Room Geometry | |
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The Initial Signal Delay Gap (ISD) | |
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Reflections | |
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Reflection Free Zone | |
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Diffusion | |
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Conclusion | |
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Designing for Acoustic Gain | |
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Maximum Physical Distance | |
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Establishing an Acceptable Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) | |
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Establishing an EAD | |
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Needed Acoustic Gain (NAG) | |
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The Number of Open Microphones | |
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The Feedback Stability Margin | |
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Calculating Potential Acoustic Gain | |
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Obtaining �D<sub>x</sub> Values | |
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Measuring Acoustic Gain | |
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Achieving Potential Acoustic Gain | |
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Limiting Parameters in Sound Reinforcement System Design | |
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How Much Electrical Power Is Required? | |
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Finding the Required Electrical Power (REP) | |
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Summary | |
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Designing for Speech Intelligibility | |
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Introduction | |
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Articulation Losses of Consonants in Speech | |
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Maxfield's Equation | |
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Speech Power and Articulation | |
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Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) | |
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Speech Intelligibility Calculations | |
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Non-Acoustic Articulation Problems | |
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Relationship Between Q<sub>MIN</sub> and D<sub>2</sub> (MAX) | |
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High Density Overhead Distribution | |
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%AL<sub>CONS</sub> Variables | |
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A Little History-Intelligibility Workshop 1986 | |
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Summary | |
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What is Waving and Why | |
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General Properties of Air | |
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Plane Waves | |
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Non-Planar Wave Motion in a Tube | |
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Plane Wave Tubes having Arbitrary Terminations | |
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Impedance Tube | |
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More General Waves | |
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Acoustic Intensity | |
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Boundaries | |
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Acoustic Dipole | |
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Microphones | |
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The Microphone as the System Input | |
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Microphone Sensitivity | |
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Thermal Noise | |
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Microphone Selection | |
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Nature of Response and Directional Characteristics | |
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Boundary Microphones | |
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Wireless Microphones | |
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Microphone Connectors, Cables, and Phantom Power | |
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Measurement Microphones | |
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Microphone Calibrator | |
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Loudspeakers and Loudspeaker Arrays | |
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Loudspeaker Types | |
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Radiated Power | |
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Axial Sound Pressure Level | |
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Efficiency | |
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Loudspeaker Electrical Impedance | |
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Loudspeaker Directivity Factor | |
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Loudspeaker Sensitivity | |
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Direct Radiator Example Calculations | |
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Horns and Compression Drivers | |
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Practical Considerations Involving Horns | |
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Horn Compression Drivers | |
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Crossover Networks | |
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Loudspeaker Arrays | |
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Bessel Array | |
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Line Arrays | |
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Vented Enclosure Bass Loudspeakers | |
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Large Signal Behavior of Loudspeakers | |
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Power Ratings for Amplifiers and Loudspeakers | |
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Loudspeaker Power Ratings | |
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Active Loudspeaker Systems | |
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Non-Linear Operation | |
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The Amplifier as a Voltage Source | |