| |
| |
| |
Pre-Roman Italy and the Rise of Rome to 264 | |
| |
| |
| |
Roman History: Its Geographic and Human Foundations | |
| |
| |
| |
Phoenicians, Greeks, and Etruscans in Pre-Roman Italy | |
| |
| |
| |
Early Rome to 500 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
Early Roman Society, Religion, and Values | |
| |
| |
| |
From Tyrant Kings to Oligarchic Republic, 509 to 287 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
The Roman Conquest of Italy and Its Impact, 509 to 264 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
The Hight Point of the Roman Republic, 264 to 133 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
The First Punic War, Northern Italy, and Illyrian Pirates, 264 to 219 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
War with Hannibal: The Second Punic War, 218 to 201 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
Roman Imperialism East and West, 200 to 133 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
The Transformation of Roman Life, 264 to 133 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
The Great Cultural Synthesis, 264 to 133 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
The World of the Late Republic,133 to 30 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
The Gracchi and the Struggle over Reforms, 133 to 121 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
Destructive Rivalries, Marius, and the Social War, 121 to 88 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
Civil War and Sulla's Reactionary Settlement, 88 to 78 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
Personal Ambitions: The Failure of Sulla's Optimate Oligarchy, 78 to 60 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
Caesar Wins and Is Lost, 60 to 44 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
The Last Years of the Republic, 44 to 30 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
Social, Economic, and Cultural Life in the Late Republic, ca. 133 to ca. 30 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
The Early Roman Empire, 29 B.C. to A.D. 180 | |
| |
| |
| |
The Principate Takes Shape, 29 B.C. to A.D. 14 | |
| |
| |
| |
Imperial Stabilization under Augustus | |
| |
| |
| |
The Impact of Augustus on Roman Imperial Life and Culture | |
| |
| |
| |
The First Two Julio-Claudian Emperors: Tiberius and Gaius (Ca-ligula), A.D. 14 to 41 | |
| |
| |
| |
Claudius, Nero, and the End of the Julio-Claudians, A.D. 41 to 68 | |
| |
| |
| |
The Crisis of the Principate and Recovery under the Flavians, A.D. 69 to 96 | |
| |
| |
| |
The Five "Good" Emperors of the Second Century, A.D. 96 to 180 | |
| |
| |
| |
Culture, Society, and Economy in the First Two Centuries A.D. | |
| |
| |
| |
Crisis, Continuity, and Change in the Third and Fourth Centuries, A.D. 180 to 395 | |
| |
| |
| |
Conflicts and Crises under Commodus and the Severi, A.D. 180 to 235 | |
| |
| |
| |
The Third-Century Anarchy, A.D. 235 to 285 | |
| |
| |
| |
Changes in Roman Life and Culture During the Third Century | |
| |
| |
| |
Diocletian: Creating the Fourth-Century Empire, A.D. 285 to 305 | |
| |
| |
| |
Constantine the Great and Christianity, A.D. 306 to 337 | |
| |
| |
| |
From Constantine's Dynasty to Theodosius the Great, A.D. 337 to 395 | |
| |
| |
| |
The Evolving World of Late Antiquity in the Fourth Century A.D. | |
| |
| |
| |
Christianity and Classical Culture in the Fourth Century | |
| |
| |
| |
The Transformation of the Roman World in Late Antiquity, A.D. 395 to 602 | |
| |
| |
| |
Germanic Takeover in the West and Imperial Survival in the East, A.D. 395 to 518 | |
| |
| |
| |
Justin, Justinian, and the Impossible Dream of Universal Em-pire, A.D. 518 to 602 | |
| |
| |
| |
The Transformation of the Late Antique Roman World, A.D. 395 to 600 | |
| |
| |
| |
The Church and the Legacy of Rome | |
| |
| |
| |
Pre-Roman Italy and the Rise of Rome to 264 | |
| |
| |
| |
Roman History: Its Geographic and Human Foundations | |
| |
| |
Introduction to Roman History | |
| |
| |
Geography | |
| |
| |
The Peoples and Cultures of Pre-Roman Italy | |
| |
| |
The Peoples of Italy ca. 750 to 400 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Greater Picture | |
| |
| |
| |
Phoenicians, Greeks, and Etruscans in Pre-Roman Italy | |
| |
| |
The Phoenicians | |
| |
| |
Tyre and Its Colonies | |
| |
| |
Greek Colonization | |
| |
| |
Decline of the Greek Cities in Italy and Sicily | |
| |
| |
The Etruscans | |
| |
| |
The Land of the Etruscans | |
| |
| |
Sources for Etruscan History | |
| |
| |
Etruscan Economic Life | |
| |
| |
Etruscan Cities and Their Sociopolitical Organization | |
| |
| |
Women and the Etruscan Family | |
| |
| |
Etruscan Culture and Religion | |
| |
| |
Etruscan Art and Architecture | |
| |
| |
The Role of the Etruscans in Roman History | |
| |
| |
The Fate of the Etruscans | |
| |
| |
Overview | |
| |
| |
| |
Early Rome to 500 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Ancient Literary Tradition and Its Sources | |
| |
| |
Reconstructing Early Roman History | |
| |
| |
The Early Roman State | |
| |
| |
The General Picture | |
| |
| |
| |
Early Roman Society, Religion, and Values | |
| |
| |
The Principle of Hierarchy | |
| |
| |
The Family | |
| |
| |
Patrons and Clients | |
| |
| |
Slaves and Freedmen | |
| |
| |
Roman Names and the Gens | |
| |
| |
Classes in Roman Society | |
| |
| |
The Openness of Early Roman Society to Outsiders | |
| |
| |
Early Roman Religion | |
| |
| |
The State, Religion, and War | |
| |
| |
The Values of Early Roman Society | |
| |
| |
Overview and Significance | |
| |
| |
| |
From Tyrant Kings to Oligarchic Republic, 509 to 287 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Sources of Information for Early Republican History | |
| |
| |
From Kingship to Republic, ca. 510-ca. 490 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Early Form of the Republic | |
| |
| |
The Priesthoods and Priestly Colleges | |
| |
| |
The Dynamics of Change, 509 to 287 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Growing Plebeian Identity and Rights, ca. 500-ca. 400 B.C. | |
| |
| |
A New Period of Reform, 367 to 287 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Oligarchic Realities of the Roman Republican Constitution after 287 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
The Roman Conquest of Italy and Its Impact, 509 to 264 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Conflicts with Immediate Neighbors | |
| |
| |
The Gallic Sack of Rome | |
| |
| |
Up from Defeat | |
| |
| |
Initial Conquests in Central Italy | |
| |
| |
The Roman System of Alliances and Citizen Communities | |
| |
| |
Renewed War and Conquests in Central Italy | |
| |
| |
The Pyrrhic Wars and the Conquest of Peninsular Italy | |
| |
| |
The Manipular Army | |
| |
| |
The Economic, Social, and Cultural Impact of Roman Expansion in Italy by 264 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Rome's Rise Surveyed and Explained | |
| |
| |
| |
The Hight Point of the Roman Republic, 264 to 133 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
The First Punic War, Northern Italy, and Illyrian Pirates, 264 to 219 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Sources for Roman History from 264 to 133 B.C. | |
| |
| |
A New Chapter in Rome's Expansion | |
| |
| |
Carthage | |
| |
| |
Sicily and the Outbreak of the First Punic War, 264 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Initial Carthaginian Setbacks, 263 and 262 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Expansion of the War | |
| |
| |
A Titanic Struggle, 260 to 241 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Truceless War and Roman Trickery, 241 to 238 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Roman Conquests in Northern Italy | |
| |
| |
The Pirates of Illyria, 229 and 228 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Renewed War with the Gauls, 225-220 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Pirates Again, 220 to 219 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Rome's Rise as a Mediterranean Power Surveyed | |
| |
| |
| |
War with Hannibal: The Second Punic War, 218 to 201 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Carthaginian Recovery after 238 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Ebro Treaty | |
| |
| |
Hannibal and the Outbreak of the Second Punic War | |
| |
| |
Causes of the Second Punic War | |
| |
| |
Hannibal's War Strategy | |
| |
| |
Roman War Plans | |
| |
| |
Hannibal's March to the Alps | |
| |
| |
Hannibal's Early Victories, 218 and 217 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Fabius Maximus, Cunctator, 217 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Battle of Cannae, 216 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Further Carthaginian Successes | |
| |
| |
The Roman Recovery | |
| |
| |
The First Macedonian War, 215 to 205 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The War in Spain, 218 to 211 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Scipio Africanus | |
| |
| |
The Battle at the Metaurus and the Death of Hasdrubal, 207 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The End Approaches | |
| |
| |
The Battle of Zama (Naraggara), 202 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Peace Terms | |
| |
| |
Overview and Reasons for Roman Success | |
| |
| |
Aftermath and the Fate of Hannibal | |
| |
| |
| |
Roman Imperialism East and West, 200 to 133 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Provincial Governors | |
| |
| |
Roman Imperialism in the East | |
| |
| |
Antiochus III (the Great) of Syria and Philip V of Macedon | |
| |
| |
The Second Macedonian War, 200 to 196 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Aggressions of Antiochus III (the Great), 196 to 192 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The War With Antiochus III (the Great), 192 to 188 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Third Macedonian War, 171 to 168/7 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Rome and the Hellenistic East after Pydna (168 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
Roman Imperialism in the West, 200 to 133 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Northern Italy | |
| |
| |
Successes and Failures in Spain | |
| |
| |
The Third Punic War, 149 to 146 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Viriathic and Numantine Wars in Spain, 151 to 133 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Overview and Assessment | |
| |
| |
| |
The Transformation of Roman Life, 264 to 133 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Impact of War and Overseas Expansion on Small Farmers | |
| |
| |
Coinage and the Monetization of the Economy | |
| |
| |
The Growth of Trade, Cities, Industry, and Commerce | |
| |
| |
Social Change and Discontent | |
| |
| |
Political Developments | |
| |
| |
Overview and Assessment | |
| |
| |
| |
The Great Cultural Synthesis, 264 to 133 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Architecture and Art | |
| |
| |
Literature | |
| |
| |
Specialization in Genres | |
| |
| |
Prose Literature | |
| |
| |
Philosophy | |
| |
| |
Law | |
| |
| |
Religion | |
| |
| |
Education | |
| |
| |
Overview and Prospect | |
| |
| |
| |
The World of the Late Republic,133 to 30 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
The Gracchi and the Struggle over Reforms, 133 to 121 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Sources for the Period of the Gracchi, 133 to 121 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Mounting Problems | |
| |
| |
The Tribuneship of Tiberius Gracchus, 133 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Tiberius' Motives | |
| |
| |
The Land Commission and Its Impact | |
| |
| |
Rome's Allies and the Death of Scipio | |
| |
| |
Gaius Gracchus, Tribune of the Plebs, 123 to 122 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Reforms of Gaius Gracchus | |
| |
| |
Livius Drusus | |
| |
| |
The Fall and Death of Gaius Gracchus | |
| |
| |
The Popularis Political Legacy of the Gracchi | |
| |
| |
| |
Destructive Rivalries, Marius, and the Social War, 121 to 88 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Sources for the Period from 121 to 88 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Populares and Optimates | |
| |
| |
The Senatus Consultum Ultimum | |
| |
| |
Post-Gracchan Land Legislation | |
| |
| |
Other Internal Matters | |
| |
| |
The Imperial Background to Domestic Politics | |
| |
| |
The Popularis Rise of Gaius Marius (157 to 86 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
The Slave Revolt in Sicily, 104 to 100 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Piracy in the Eastern Mediterranean | |
| |
| |
The Political Fall of Marius | |
| |
| |
A Decade of Optimate Domination | |
| |
| |
The Explosive Reforms of M. Livius Drusus the Younger, 91 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Italian, or Social, War, 90 to 88 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Aftermath of the Social War | |
| |
| |
| |
Civil War and Sulla's Reactionary Settlement, 88 to 78 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Sources for the Years 88 to 78 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Mithridates VI Eupator (134 to 63 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
The Rise of Sulla (138 to 78 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
Cinna's Consulship, 87 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Marius and His Reign of Terror | |
| |
| |
The Significance of Marius | |
| |
| |
Cinna's Time (Cinnanum Tempus) | |
| |
| |
Sulla and the East, 87 to 84 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Sulla's Return to Italy, 83 to 82 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Sulla's Reign of Terror, 82 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Sulla's Dictatorship and Political Reforms | |
| |
| |
The Failure of Sulla | |
| |
| |
| |
Personal Ambitions: The Failure of Sulla's Optimate Oligarchy, 78 to 60 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Sources for Roman History from 78 to 30 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Rise of Pompey the Great (106 to 48 B.C.) 78 to 71 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Great (Third) Mithridatic War (74/3 to 63 B.C.) and Lucullus' Bid for Glory, 74 to 66 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Crassus Seeks Advantage in the Slave War against Spartacus in Italy, 73 to 71 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Consulship of Pompey and Crassus, 70 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Cicero Gains Fame in the Trial of Verres, 70 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Tribunes Make Their Marks and Pompey Takes Control of the East, 67 to 62 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Rome in the Absence of Pompey | |
| |
| |
After Pompey's Return, 62 to 60 B.C. | |
| |
| |
| |
Caesar Wins and Is Lost, 60 to 44 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Caesar Partners with Pompey and Crassus, 60 to 58 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Gaul and the Foundation of Caesar's Might, 58 to 56 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Disorder at Rome and a Renewed Partnership, 58 to 56 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Caesar Overcomes Challenges in Gaul, 56 to 52 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Caesar's Partners Strive to Keep Up, 56 to 53 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Rivalry and Civil War between Caesar and Pompey, 53 to 48 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Caesar's Dictatorships and Final Victory, 48 to 45 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Caesar's Work of Reconstruction | |
| |
| |
The Assassination of Julius Caesar, March 15, 44 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Question of Monarchy | |
| |
| |
The Significance of Caesar | |
| |
| |
| |
The Last Years of the Republic, 44 to 30 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Marcus Antonius Tries to Take Control, 44 to 43 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Triumvirate of Octavian, Antonius, and Lepidus, 43 to 36 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Antonius and Cleopatra Rule the East, 37 to 32 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The Approach and Renewal of Civil War, 32 to 30 B.C. | |
| |
| |
The End of the Republic | |
| |
| |
| |
Social, Economic, and Cultural Life in the Late Republic, ca. 133 to ca. 30 B.C. | |
| |
| |
Land, Veterans, and Rural Life | |
| |
| |
Industry and Commerce | |
| |
| |
The Concentration of Wealth | |
| |
| |
Life for the Urban Poor | |
| |
| |
Slaves and Freedmen | |
| |
| |
Italians and Provincials | |
| |
| |
Women in the Late Republic | |
| |
| |
New Waves of Hellenization | |
| |
| |
Education | |
| |
| |
Law and the Legal System | |
| |
| |
The Religious World of the Late Republic | |
| |
| |
Greek Philosophy and the Roman Elite | |
| |
| |
Art and Architecture | |
| |
| |
Late Republican Literature from the Gracchi to Sulla | |
| |
| |
The Novi Poetae | |
| |
| |
Catullus (ca. 85 to ca. 54 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
Lucretius (ca. 94 to ca. 55 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
Cicero (106 to 43 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
Sallust (86 to ca. 34 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
Caesar (100 to 44 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
Scholarship and Patriotic Antiquarianism | |
| |
| |
The Cultural Legacy of the Late Republic | |
| |
| |
| |
The Early Roman Empire, 29 B.C. to A.D. 180 | |
| |
| |
| |
The Principate Takes Shape, 29 B.C. to A.D. 14 | |
| |
| |
Sources for the Augustan Principate | |
| |
| |
Hopes for Peace | |
| |
| |
Problems to be Faced | |
| |
| |
Octavian's Advantages | |
| |
| |
The Evolving Constitutional Arrangements of the Principate | |
| |
| |
The Nature of the Principate | |
| |
| |
The Creation of a Central Administration | |
| |
| |
Social Reforms | |
| |
| |
Religious Reforms | |
| |
| |
Overview and Assessment | |
| |
| |
| |
Imperial Stabilization under Augustus | |
| |
| |
Military Reforms | |
| |
| |
Protection of the Emperor | |
| |
| |
Fiscal Reforms | |
| |
| |
Provincial Reforms | |
| |
| |
Conquests in the West | |
| |
| |
Solidifying Control of the Balkans, Crete, and Cyrene | |
| |
| |
Holding the East | |
| |
| |
Road Building | |
| |
| |
The Imperial Post (Cursus Publicus) | |
| |
| |
Colonization | |
| |
| |
Urbanization of the Provinces | |
| |
| |
Growth of the Imperial Cult | |
| |
| |
The Problem of Succession | |
| |
| |
The Death of Augustus | |
| |
| |
| |
The Impact of Augustus on Roman Imperial Life and Culture | |
| |
| |
The Population and Economic Impact of Rome | |
| |
| |
Agriculture | |
| |
| |
Agricultural Wealth and Urbanization | |
| |
| |
Cities of Italy and the Empire | |
| |
| |
Nonagricultural Trade and Industry | |
| |
| |
The Roman Imperial Coinage | |
| |
| |
Architecture and Art | |
| |
| |
Literature | |
| |
| |
Vergil (70 to 19 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
Horace (65 to 8 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
The Latin Elegists | |
| |
| |
Latin Prose Writers | |
| |
| |
The Impact of Augustus on Latin Literature | |
| |
| |
Greek Writers | |
| |
| |
Scholarly and Technical Writings | |
| |
| |
Law and Jurisprudence | |
| |
| |
The Augustan Achievement | |
| |
| |
| |
The First Two Julio-Claudian Emperors: Tiberius and Gaius (Caligula), A.D. 14 to 41 | |
| |
| |
Sources for the Julio-Claudians | |
| |
| |
The Julio-Claudian Dynasty (Chart) | |
| |
| |
Tiberius (A.D. 14 to 37) | |
| |
| |
Germanicus | |
| |
| |
Livia | |
| |
| |
Sejanus | |
| |
| |
The Law of Treason (Maiestas) | |
| |
| |
Tiberius and the Senate: The Increasing Power of the Princeps | |
| |
| |
Tiberius the Administrator | |
| |
| |
Tiberius' Last Years and the Succession | |
| |
| |
Gaius Caligula (A.D. 37 to 41) | |
| |
| |
A Popular Princeps at First | |
| |
| |
Problems in the Palace | |
| |
| |
Tensions with the Senate | |
| |
| |
Caligula's Military Operations | |
| |
| |
Fiscal Problems | |
| |
| |
Caligula's Foreign and Provincial Policies | |
| |
| |
Caligula's Religious Policies | |
| |
| |
Caligula's Assassination | |
| |
| |
Overview and Prospect | |
| |
| |
| |
Claudius, Nero, and the End of the Julio-Claudians, A.D. 41 to 68 | |
| |
| |
Claudius (A.D. 41 to 54) | |
| |
| |
The Political Philosophy and Policies of Claudius | |
| |
| |
Foreign Policy and Imperial Defense | |
| |
| |
Colonization, Urbanization, and Romanization in the Provinces | |
| |
| |
Claudius' Wives | |
| |
| |
Claudius' Death and the Succession of Nero (A.D. 54 to 68) | |
| |
| |
Nero Surveyed | |
| |
| |
The Darker Side of Nero's Early Reign | |
| |
| |
Nero Asserts Himself | |
| |
| |
Growing Hostility Toward Nero | |
| |
| |
Plots against the Throne | |
| |
| |
Prelude to a Fall | |
| |
| |
The Jewish Revolt and the Fall of Nero | |
| |
| |
Afterward | |
| |
| |
| |
The Crisis of the Principate and Recovery under the Flavians, A.D. 69 to 96 | |
| |
| |
Sources | |
| |
| |
Galba (68 to 69) | |
| |
| |
Otho (69) | |
| |
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Vitellius (69) | |
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Vespasian (69 to 79) | |
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The Restoration of Peace | |
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Reform of the Army | |
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Provincial Policy | |
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The Near East | |
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Vespasian's Relations with the Senate | |
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The Expansion of Executive Power | |
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Fiscal Administration | |
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Public Expenditures | |
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The Opposition to Vespasian | |
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Vespasian's Death, 79 | |
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Titus (79 to 81) | |
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Domitian (81 to 96) | |
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War and Rebellion, 82 to 93 | |
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Fear, Purges, and the Murder of Domitian, 89 to 96 | |
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The Five "Good" Emperors of the Second Century, A.D. 96 to 180 | |
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Sources | |
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Nerva (96 to 98) | |
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Trajan (98 to 117) | |
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A Model Emperor | |
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Trajan's Wars | |
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The Death of Trajan, 117 | |
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The Empress Plotina | |
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The Effects of Trajan's Wars | |
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Hadrian (117 to 138) | |
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The Early Years of Hadrian's Principate | |
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Hadrian's Travels | |
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The Jewish Revolt | |
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New Directions under Hadrian | |
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The Last Years of Hadrian | |
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Antoninus Pius (138 to 161) | |
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Faustina the Elder | |
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Maintaining the Status Quo | |
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The Legacy of Antoninus | |
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Marcus Aurelius (161 to 180) | |
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Marcus Aurelius as Emperor and Soldier | |
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The Question of Succession | |
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Problems for the Future | |
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Culture, Society, and Economy in the First Two Centuries A.D. | |
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Post-Augustan Imperial Literature | |
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Poverty of Literature under Tiberius and Caligula | |
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The Blossoming of the Silver Age in Literature under Claudius and Nero | |
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Technical Writing and Scholarship | |
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Science and Medicine | |
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Philology and Literary Scholarship | |
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Lack of Great Literature under the Flavians, A.D. 69 to 96 | |
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Resurgence of Literature under the Five "Good" Emperors | |
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Resurgence of Greek Literature | |
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The Second Sophistic | |
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Christian Writers | |
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Philosophy | |
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General Religious Trends | |
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Judaism | |
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Mystery Cults | |
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Christianity | |
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Roman Architecture in the First Two Centuries A.D. | |
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Architecture in the Provinces | |
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Sculpture | |
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Painting | |
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Mosaics, Coins, and Medallions | |
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Social Developments | |
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Economic Trends | |
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Inherent Economic and Fiscal Weakness of the Roman Empire | |
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Crisis, Continuity, and Change in the Third and Fourth Centuries, A.D. 180 to 395 | |
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Conflicts and Crises under Commodus and the Severi, A.D. 180 to 235 | |
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Sources for Roman History, A.D. 180 to 285 | |
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Commodus (180 to 192) | |
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Pertinax (January 1 to March 28, 193) | |
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Didius Julianus (March 28 to June 1, 193) | |
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The Accession of Septimius Severus (193 to 211) | |
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| |
New Sources of Imperial Authority and Legitimacy | |
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Systematic Reform | |
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Imperial Wars and Defense, 197 to 201/2 | |
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Roman Interlude, 203 to 207 | |
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| |
The War in Britain, 208 to 211 | |
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Caracalla (211 to 217) | |
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Macrinus (217 to 218) | |
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Impressive Syrian Queens | |
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Elagabalus (218 to 222) | |
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Severus Alexander (222 to 235) | |
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The Third-Century Anarchy, A.D. 235 to 285 | |
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| |
Reasons for the Crisis | |
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The Emperors of Troubled Times | |
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| |
The Nightmare Begins, 235 to 253 | |
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| |
The Age of Gallienus, 253 to 268 | |
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| |
The Reforms of Gallienus | |
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| |
An Assessment of Gallienus | |
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| |
Initial Recovery under Illyrian Soldier Emperors, 268 to 275 | |
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| |
The Nightmare Resumes, 275 to 285 | |
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| |
| |
Changes in Roman Life and Culture During the Third Century | |
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| |
Economic Life | |
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Social Trends | |
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Third-Century Cultural Life | |
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Religion | |
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Science and Philosophy | |
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Education and the World of Letters | |
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| |
Art and Architecture | |
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| |
Summary and Prospect | |
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Diocletian: Creating the Fourth-Century Empire, A.D. 285 to 305 | |
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| |
Sources for Roman History During the Fourth Century A.D. | |
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| |
The Rise of Diocletian | |
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| |
The Tetrarchy: A New Form of Imperial Rule, 293 to 312 | |
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| |
Diocletian's Other Initiatives | |
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| |
The Persecution of Christians | |
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| |
The Abdication | |
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| |
Prisca and Valeria | |
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| |
Problems Left by Diocletian | |
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Constantine the Great and Christianity, A.D. 306 to 337 | |
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| |
The Rise of Constantine, 306 to 312 | |
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| |
A Victory for Christianity | |
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Constantine and Licinius: The Empire Divided, 313 to 324 | |
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| |
The Donatist Schism | |
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| |
The Arian Heresy | |
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The Defeat and Death of Licinius, 324 | |
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| |
Constantia and Her Sisters | |
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| |
The Council of Nicaea, 325 | |
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| |
Constantine's Secular Policies | |
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| |
The Founding of Constantinople, 324 to 330 | |
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| |
The Death of Constantine the Great, 337 | |
| |
| |
Overview | |
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| |
From Constantine's Dynasty to Theodosius the Great, A.D. 337 to 395 | |
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| |
Murder and Civil War | |
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| |
The Empire under Constantius II | |
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| |
Julian the Apostate Emperor (361 to 363) | |
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| |
Jovian (June 363 to February 364) | |
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| |
Valentinian I (364 to 375) and Valens (364 to 378) | |
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| |
Gratian (375 to 383) and Theodosius the Great (379 to 395) | |
| |
| |
The Death of Theodosius and the Division of the Empire, 395 | |
| |
| |
| |
The Evolving World of Late Antiquity in the Fourth Century A.D. | |
| |
| |
Economic Conditions | |
| |
| |
The Social Context | |
| |
| |
Private Life | |
| |
| |
Overview | |
| |
| |
| |
Christianity and Classical Culture in the Fourth Century | |
| |
| |
Christianity and the Expansion of Classical Culture | |
| |
| |
The Educated World of Letters | |
| |
| |
Christian Literature of the Fourth Century | |
| |
| |
Fourth-Century Art and Architecture | |
| |
| |
| |
The Transformation of the Roman World in Late Antiquity, A.D. 395 to 602 | |
| |
| |
| |
Germanic Takeover in the West and Imperial Survival in the East, A.D. 395 to 518 | |
| |
| |
Sources for Roman History from 395 to 518 | |
| |
| |
Western Weaknesses and Eastern Strengths | |
| |
| |
Stilicho and Alaric, 395 to 410 | |
| |
| |
The Visigothic Migration and Settlement after Alaric | |
| |
| |
The Vandals, Alans, and Suevi | |
| |
| |
Galla Placidia, Valentinian III (423-455), and Aetius | |
| |
| |
Attila and the Huns, 443 to 454 | |
| |
| |
The Burgundians | |
| |
| |
The Franks | |
| |
| |
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes | |
| |
| |
The Vandals in Africa | |
| |
| |
The End of Imperial Power in the West, 454 to 500 | |
| |
| |
Weak Men and Powerful Women: The Theodosian Dynasty in the East, 395 to 450 | |
| |
| |
Persians and Huns, 408 to 450 | |
| |
| |
Christian Controversies and Imperial Politics | |
| |
| |
German and Isaurian Generals | |
| |
| |
Pulcheria and Marcian (450 to 457) | |
| |
| |
Leo I (457 to 474) | |
| |
| |
Leo II (473 to 474) and Zeno (474 to 491) | |
| |
| |
Religious Controversies Continued | |
| |
| |
Anastasius (491 to 518) | |
| |
| |
Overview and Prospect | |
| |
| |
| |
Justin, Justinian, and the Impossible Dream of Universal Em-pire, A.D. 518 to 602 | |
| |
| |
Sources for the Period of Justin and Justinian | |
| |
| |
The Reign of Justin (518 to 527) | |
| |
| |
Justinian (527 to 565) | |
| |
| |
Theodora (508-548) | |
| |
| |
Religious Policies of Theodora and Justinian | |
| |
| |
Legal Reforms | |
| |
| |
Administrative Reforms | |
| |
| |
John the Cappadocian | |
| |
| |
The First Persian War, 527 to 532 | |
| |
| |
The Nika Rebellion of the Blue and Green Circus Factions, 532 | |
| |
| |
The Rebuilding of Constantinople | |
| |
| |
Reconquest of the North African Provinces, 533 to 534 | |
| |
| |
Italy Is Invaded, 536 to 540 | |
| |
| |
Troubles in North Africa | |
| |
| |
The Second Persian War, 540 to 562 | |
| |
| |
Resumption of War in Italy, 541 to 543 | |
| |
| |
Troubles Everywhere | |
| |
| |
Belisarius Returns to Face Totila in Italy, 544 to 549 | |
| |
| |
The Lazic War, 549 to 557 | |
| |
| |
Peace in the East | |
| |
| |
Disaster in Italy, 549 to 551 | |
| |
| |
The Recovery of Italy, 552 to 562 | |
| |
| |
Wars on Other Fronts, 544 to 561 | |
| |
| |
Justinian's Legacy and His Successors, 565 to 602 | |
| |
| |
Final Judgment | |
| |
| |
| |
The Transformation of the Late Antique Roman World, A.D. 395 to 600 | |
| |
| |
The Economy | |
| |
| |
Social and Demographic Changes | |
| |
| |
Religion | |
| |
| |
The New Cultural Spirit | |
| |
| |
Latin Poetry | |
| |
| |
Latin Prose | |
| |
| |
Classicizing Greek Poets | |
| |
| |
The Late Greek Historians | |
| |
| |
Philosophy | |
| |
| |
Theology | |
| |
| |
Art and Architecture | |
| |
| |
| |
The Church and the Legacy of Rome | |
| |
| |
Transmitting the Roman Classical Legacy | |
| |
| |
The Imperial Church | |
| |
| |
The Rise of Rome | |