| |
| |
| Preface | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction to Scientific Research | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Preview | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Methods of Acquiring Knowledge | |
| |
| |
| Tenacity | |
| |
| |
| Intuition | |
| |
| |
| Authority | |
| |
| |
| Rationalism | |
| |
| |
| Empiricism | |
| |
| |
| Science | |
| |
| |
| Induction | |
| |
| |
| Hypothesis Testing | |
| |
| |
| Naturalism | |
| |
| |
| What Is Science? | |
| |
| |
| Pseudoscience | |
| |
| |
| Overuse of ad hoc Hypotheses to Escape Refutation | |
| |
| |
| Emphasis on Confirmation Rather Than Refutation | |
| |
| |
| Absence of Self-Correction | |
| |
| |
| Reversed Burden of Proof | |
| |
| |
| Overreliance on Testimonials and Anecdotal Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Use of Obscurantist Language | |
| |
| |
| Absence of "Connectivity" with Other Disciplines | |
| |
| |
| Advantage of Scientific Research | |
| |
| |
| Characteristics of Scientific Research | |
| |
| |
| Control | |
| |
| |
| Operationalism | |
| |
| |
| Replication | |
| |
| |
| Objectives of Scientific Research | |
| |
| |
| Description | |
| |
| |
| Explanation | |
| |
| |
| Prediction | |
| |
| |
| Control | |
| |
| |
| Basic Assumptions Underlying Scientific Research | |
| |
| |
| Reality in Nature | |
| |
| |
| Rationality | |
| |
| |
| Regularity | |
| |
| |
| Discoverability | |
| |
| |
| The Role of Theory in Scientific Research | |
| |
| |
| The Role of the Scientist in Research | |
| |
| |
| Curiosity | |
| |
| |
| Patience | |
| |
| |
| Objectivity | |
| |
| |
| Change | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Key Terms and Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Related Internet Sites | |
| |
| |
| Practice Test | |
| |
| |
| Challenge Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nonexperimental Research Approaches | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Preview | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Nonexperimental Quantitative Research | |
| |
| |
| Correlational Study | |
| |
| |
| Ex Post Facto Study | |
| |
| |
| Longitudinal Study and Cross-Sectional Study | |
| |
| |
| Naturalistic Observation | |
| |
| |
| Meta Analysis | |
| |
| |
| The Survey | |
| |
| |
| Qualitative Research | |
| |
| |
| Phenomenology | |
| |
| |
| Ethnography | |
| |
| |
| Case Study | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Key Terms and Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Related Internet Sites | |
| |
| |
| Practice Test | |
| |
| |
| Challenge Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Experimental Research Approach | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Preview | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Causation | |
| |
| |
| Cause | |
| |
| |
| Effect | |
| |
| |
| Causal Relationship | |
| |
| |
| The Psychological Experiment | |
| |
| |
| Advantages of the Experimental Approach | |
| |
| |
| Disadvantages of the Experimental Approach | |
| |
| |
| Experimental Research Settings | |
| |
| |
| Field Experimentation | |
| |
| |
| Laboratory Experimentation | |
| |
| |
| Internet Experiments | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Key Terms and Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Related Internet Sites | |
| |
| |
| Practice Test | |
| |
| |
| Challenge Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Problem Identification and Hypothesis Formation | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Preview | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Sources of Research Ideas | |
| |
| |
| Everyday Life | |
| |
| |
| Practical Issues | |
| |
| |
| Past Research | |
| |
| |
| Theory | |
| |
| |
| Gender Bias in Research Ideas | |
| |
| |
| Ideas Not Capable of Scientific Investigation | |
| |
| |
| Review of the Literature | |
| |
| |
| Getting Started | |
| |
| |
| Defining Objectives | |
| |
| |
| Doing the Search | |
| |
| |
| Obtaining Resources | |
| |
| |
| Additional Information Sources | |
| |
| |
| Feasibility of the Study | |
| |
| |
| Formulating the Research Problem | |
| |
| |
| Defining a Research Problem | |
| |
| |
| Specificity of the Question | |
| |
| |
| Formulating Hypotheses | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Key Terms and Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Related Internet Sites | |
| |
| |
| Practice Test | |
| |
| |
| Challenge Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ethics | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Preview | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Research Ethics: What Are They? | |
| |
| |
| Relationship between Society and Science | |
| |
| |
| Professional Issues | |
| |
| |
| Treatment of Research Participants | |
| |
| |
| Ethical Dilemmas | |
| |
| |
| Ethical Guidelines | |
| |
| |
| Respect for Persons and Their Autonomy | |
| |
| |
| Beneficence and Nonmaleficence | |
| |
| |
| Justice | |
| |
| |
| Trust | |
| |
| |
| Fidelity and Scientific Integrity | |
| |
| |
| APA Ethical Standards for Research | |
| |
| |
| Ethical Issues to Consider When Conducting Research | |
| |
| |
| Institutional Approval | |
| |
| |
| Informed Consent | |
| |
| |
| Deception | |
| |
| |
| Debriefing | |
| |
| |
| Coercion and Freedom to Decline Participation | |
| |
| |
| Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy | |
| |
| |
| Ethical Issues in Electronic Research | |
| |
| |
| Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report | |
| |
| |
| Ethics of Animal Research | |
| |
| |
| Animal Rights | |
| |
| |
| Alternatives to the Use of Animals | |
| |
| |
| Safeguards in the Use of Animals | |
| |
| |
| Animal Research Guidelines | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Key Terms and Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Related Internet Sites | |
| |
| |
| Practice Test | |
| |
| |
| Challenge Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Variables Used in Experimentation | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Preview | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Types of Variables | |
| |
| |
| The Independent Variable | |
| |
| |
| Variation | |
| |
| |
| Establishing Variation in the Independent Variable | |
| |
| |
| Constructing the Independent Variable | |
| |
| |
| Number of Independent Variables | |
| |
| |
| The Dependent Variable | |
| |
| |
| Response to be Used as the Dependent Variable | |
| |
| |
| Reducing Participant Error | |
| |
| |
| Number of Dependent Variables | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Key Terms and Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Related Internet Sites | |
| |
| |
| Practice Test | |
| |
| |
| Challenge Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reliability and Validity in Experimental Research | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Preview | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Relationship between Reliability and Validity | |
| |
| |
| Experimental Reliability | |
| |
| |
| Reliability and the Number and Identification of the Participants | |
| |
| |
| Reliability and the Ability and Characteristics of the Researcher | |
| |
| |
| Reliability and the Independent Variable | |
| |
| |
| Reliability and the Dependent Variable | |
| |
| |
| Measurement Error | |
| |
| |
| Methods of Assessing Reliability | |
| |
| |
| Successive Measurement | |
| |
| |
| Simultaneous Measurement | |
| |
| |
| Internal Consistency | |
| |
| |
| Experimental Validity | |
| |
| |
| Statistical Conclusion Validity | |
| |
| |
| Internal Validity | |
| |
| |
| Threats to Internal Validity | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Key Terms and Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Related Internet Sites | |
| |
| |
| Practice Test | |
| |
| |
| Challenge Exercise | |
| |
| |
| |
| Construct and External Validity in Experimental Research | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Preview | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Construct Validity | |
| |
| |
| Assessing Construct Validity | |
| |
| |
| Threats to Construct Validity | |
| |
| |
| External Validity | |
| |
| |
| Population Validity | |
| |
| |
| Ecological Validity | |
| |
| |
| Temporal Validity | |
| |
| |
| Treatment Variation Validity | |
| |
| |
| Outcome Validity | |
| |
| |
| Cautions in Evaluating the External Validity of Experiments | |
| |
| |
| Relationship between Internal and External Validity | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Key Terms and Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Related Internet Sites | |
| |
| |
| Practice Test | |
| |
| |
| Challenge Exercise | |
| |
| |
| |
| Control Techniques | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Preview | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Randomization | |
| |
| |
| Matching | |
| |
| |
| Matching by Holding Variables Constant | |
| |
| |
| Matching by Building the Extraneous Variable into the Research Design | |
| |
| |
| Matching by Yoked Control | |
| |
| |
| Matching by Equating Participants | |
| |
| |
| Intrasubject Counterbalancing: The ABBA Technique | |
| |
| |
| Intragroup Counterbalancing | |
| |
| |
| Control of Participation Effects | |
| |
| |
| Double Blind Placebo Model | |
| |
| |
| Deception | |
| |
| |
| Procedural Control, or Control of Participant Interpretation | |
| |
| |
| Control of Experimenter Effects | |
| |
| |
| Control of Recording Errors | |
| |
| |
| Control of Experimenter Attribute Errors | |
| |
| |
| Control of Experimenter Expectancy Error | |
| |
| |
| Likelihood of Achieving Control | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Key Terms and Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Related Internet Sites | |
| |
| |
| Practice Test | |
| |
| |
| Challenge Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Experimental Research Design | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Preview | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Research Designs with Threats to Internal Validity | |
| |
| |
| One-Group Posttest-Only Design | |
| |
| |
| One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design | |
| |
| |
| Nonequivalent Posttest-Only Design | |
| |
| |
| Requirements of Experimental Research Designs | |
| |
| |
| Pretesting Participants | |
| |
| |
| Experimental Research Designs | |
| |
| |
| Posttest-Only Design | |
| |
| |
| Pretest-Posttest Design | |
| |
| |
| Choice of a Research Design | |
| |
| |
| Research Question | |
| |
| |
| Control | |
| |
| |
| Between- versus Within-Participants Design | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Key Terms and Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Related Internet Sites | |
| |
| |
| Practice Test | |
| |
| |
| Challenge Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Quasi-Experimental Designs | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Preview | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design | |
| |
| |
| Outcomes with Rival Hypotheses | |
| |
| |
| Casual Inference from the Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design | |
| |
| |
| Time-Series Design | |
| |
| |
| Interrupted Time-Series Design | |
| |
| |
| Regression Discontinuity Design | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Key Terms and Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Related Internet Sites | |
| |
| |
| Practice Test | |
| |
| |
| Challenge Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Single-Case Research Designs | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Review | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Single-Case Designs | |
| |
| |
| ABA Design | |
| |
| |
| Interaction Design | |
| |
| |
| Multiple-Baseline Design | |
| |
| |
| Changing-Criterion Design | |
| |
| |
| Methodological Considerations in Using Single-Case Designs | |
| |
| |
| Baseline | |
| |
| |
| Changing One Variable at a Time | |
| |
| |
| Length of Phases | |
| |
| |
| Criteria for Evaluating Change | |
| |
| |
| Experimental Criterion | |
| |
| |
| Therapeutic Criterion | |
| |
| |
| Rival Hypotheses | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Key Terms and Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Related Internet Sites | |
| |
| |
| Practice Test | |
| |
| |
| Challenge Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Data Collection | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Preview | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Research Participants | |
| |
| |
| Obtaining Animals (Rats) | |
| |
| |
| Obtaining Human Participants | |
| |
| |
| Gender Bias | |
| |
| |
| Sample Size | |
| |
| |
| Power | |
| |
| |
| Apparatus and/or Instruments | |
| |
| |
| Instructions | |
| |
| |
| Scheduling of Research Participants | |
| |
| |
| Procedure | |
| |
| |
| Pilot Study | |
| |
| |
| Institutional Approval | |
| |
| |
| Data Collection | |
| |
| |
| Consent to Participate | |
| |
| |
| Debriefing, or Postexperimental Interview | |
| |
| |
| Debriefing Functions | |
| |
| |
| How to Debrief | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Key Terms and Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Related Internet Site | |
| |
| |
| Practice Test | |
| |
| |
| Challenge Exercise | |
| |
| |
| |
| Data Analysis | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Preview | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Testing the Hypothesis | |
| |
| |
| The Mean | |
| |
| |
| Standard Deviation | |
| |
| |
| Selection of a Statistical Test | |
| |
| |
| Independent Samples t-Test | |
| |
| |
| Significance Level | |
| |
| |
| Analysis of Variance | |
| |
| |
| One-Way Analysis of Variance | |
| |
| |
| Analysis of Variance Summary Table | |
| |
| |
| Interpreting the Results of the Analysis of Variance | |
| |
| |
| Two-Way Analysis of Variance | |
| |
| |
| Rejecting versus Failing to Reject the Null Hypothesis | |
| |
| |
| Potential Errors in the Statistical Decision-Making Process | |
| |
| |
| Correlation | |
| |
| |
| Computation of Correlation | |
| |
| |
| Interpretation of Correlation | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Key Terms and Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Related Internet Sites | |
| |
| |
| Practice Test | |
| |
| |
| Challenge Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Research Report | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| The APA Format | |
| |
| |
| Preparation of the Research Report | |
| |
| |
| Writing Style | |
| |
| |
| Language | |
| |
| |
| Editorial Style | |
| |
| |
| Submission of the Research Report for Publication | |
| |
| |
| Acceptance of the Manuscript | |
| |
| |
| Presenting Research Results at Professional Conferences | |
| |
| |
| Oral Presentation | |
| |
| |
| Poster Presentation | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Key Terms and Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Related Internet Sites | |
| |
| |
| Appendixes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Answers to Practice Tests | |
| |
| |
| |
| Critical Values of t | |
| |
| |
| |
| The 5 Percent and 1 Percent Values for the F-Distribution | |
| |
| |
| |
| Table of Random Numbers | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Index | |