| |
| |
| Preface | |
| |
| |
| Epigram | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Single Case in Basic and Applied Research: An Historical Perspective | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Beginnings in Experimental Physiology and Psychology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Origins of the Group Comparison Approach | |
| |
| |
| The influence of inferential statistics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Development of Applied Research: The Case Study Method | |
| |
| |
| Early reports of percentage of success in treated groups | |
| |
| |
| The development of the group comparison approach in applied research | |
| |
| |
| |
| Limitations of Early Group Comparison Approaches | |
| |
| |
| Ethical objections and practical problems | |
| |
| |
| Averaging of results | |
| |
| |
| Generality of findings | |
| |
| |
| Intersubject variability | |
| |
| |
| |
| Early Alternative Approaches to Applied Research | |
| |
| |
| Naturalistic studies | |
| |
| |
| Process research | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Scientist-Practitioner Split | |
| |
| |
| |
| A Return to the Individual | |
| |
| |
| The role of the case study | |
| |
| |
| The representative case | |
| |
| |
| Shapiro's methodology in the clinic | |
| |
| |
| Quasi-experimental designs | |
| |
| |
| Chassan and intensive designs | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Experimental Analysis of Behavior | |
| |
| |
| |
| General Issues in a Single-Case Approach | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Variability | |
| |
| |
| Variability in basic research | |
| |
| |
| Variability in applied research | |
| |
| |
| Clinical vs. statistical significance | |
| |
| |
| Highlighting variability in the individual | |
| |
| |
| Repeated measures | |
| |
| |
| Rapidly changing designs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Experimental Analysis of Sources of Variability Through Improvised Designs | |
| |
| |
| Subject fails to improve | |
| |
| |
| Subject improves "spontaneously" | |
| |
| |
| Subject displays cyclical variability | |
| |
| |
| Searching for "hidden" sources of variability | |
| |
| |
| |
| Behavior Trends and Intrasubject Averaging | |
| |
| |
| |
| Relation of Variability to Generality of Findings | |
| |
| |
| |
| Generality of Findings | |
| |
| |
| Types of generality | |
| |
| |
| Problems in generalizing from a single-case | |
| |
| |
| |
| Some Limitations of Group Designs in Establishing Generality of Findings | |
| |
| |
| Random sampling and inference in applied research | |
| |
| |
| Problems in generalizing from the group to the individual | |
| |
| |
| Improving generality of findings to the individual through homogeneous groups: logical generalization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Homogeneous Groups Versus Replication of a Single-Case Experiment | |
| |
| |
| Direct replication and treatment/no-treatment control group design | |
| |
| |
| Systematic and clinical replication and factorial designs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Blurring the Distinction Between Design Options | |
| |
| |
| |
| General Procedures in Single-Case Research | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Repeated Measurement | |
| |
| |
| Practical implications and limitations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Choosing a Baseline | |
| |
| |
| Baseline stability | |
| |
| |
| Examples of baselines | |
| |
| |
| |
| Changing One Variable at a Time | |
| |
| |
| Correct and incorrect applications | |
| |
| |
| Exceptions to the rule | |
| |
| |
| Issues in drug evaluation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reversal and Withdrawal | |
| |
| |
| The reversal design | |
| |
| |
| Reversal and withdrawal designs compared | |
| |
| |
| Withdrawal of treatment | |
| |
| |
| Limitations and problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Length of Phases | |
| |
| |
| Individual and relative length | |
| |
| |
| Carryover effects | |
| |
| |
| Cyclic variation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Evaluation of Irreversible Procedures | |
| |
| |
| Exceptions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Assessing Response Maintenance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Behavior Assessment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Selection of Behavior to Assess | |
| |
| |
| Social significance | |
| |
| |
| Clinical significance | |
| |
| |
| Organizational significance | |
| |
| |
| Personal significance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurement of Behavior | |
| |
| |
| Primary measures: behavioral dimensionals of proximal, directly observed behavior | |
| |
| |
| Temporality dimensions | |
| |
| |
| Repeatability dimensions | |
| |
| |
| Products of behavior | |
| |
| |
| Behavior rating scales | |
| |
| |
| Self-reports | |
| |
| |
| Physiological measures | |
| |
| |
| |
| Settings for Assessment | |
| |
| |
| Contrived versus naturalistic settings and observations | |
| |
| |
| A continuum of contrivance | |
| |
| |
| Defining the behaviors to be observed | |
| |
| |
| Selecting observers | |
| |
| |
| Technically enhanced observation | |
| |
| |
| Training observers | |
| |
| |
| Reliability and validity | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Assessment of Function | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary and Conclusions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basic A-B-A Withdrawal Designs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Limitations of the case study approach | |
| |
| |
| |
| A-B Design | |
| |
| |
| A-B with follow-up | |
| |
| |
| A-B with multiple target measures and follow-up | |
| |
| |
| A-B with follow-up and booster treatment | |
| |
| |
| |
| A-B-A Design | |
| |
| |
| A-B-A from the adult literature | |
| |
| |
| A-B-A from child literature | |
| |
| |
| |
| A-B-A-B Design | |
| |
| |
| A-B-A-B from child literature | |
| |
| |
| A-B-A-B when phase change is not under complete experimental control | |
| |
| |
| A-B-A-B with unexpected improvement in baseline | |
| |
| |
| A-B-A-B with monitoring of concurrent behaviors | |
| |
| |
| A-B-A-B with no feedback to experimenter | |
| |
| |
| |
| B-A-B Design | |
| |
| |
| B-A-B with group data | |
| |
| |
| B-A-B from rogerian framework | |
| |
| |
| |
| A-B-C-B Design | |
| |
| |
| A-B-C-B from the child literature | |
| |
| |
| A-B-C-B in a group application and follow-up | |
| |
| |
| |
| Extensions of the A-B-A Design, Uses in Drug Evaluation and Interaction Design Strategies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Extensions and Variations of the A-B-A Withdrawal Design | |
| |
| |
| |
| A-B-A-B-A-B Design | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comparing Separate Treatment Variables/Components | |
| |
| |
| A-B-A-C-A-C'-A design | |
| |
| |
| |
| Parametric Variations of the Same Treatment Variable/Component | |
| |
| |
| A-B-A-B-B[subscript 1]-B[subscript 2]-B[subscript 3]-B[subscript N] design | |
| |
| |
| A-B- B[subscript 1]-B[subscript 2]-A-B[subscript 1] design | |
| |
| |
| |
| Drug Evaluations | |
| |
| |
| Issues specific to drug evaluations | |
| |
| |
| Design options | |
| |
| |
| |
| Strategies for Studying Interaction Effects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Changing Criterion Designs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Multiple Baseline Designs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Multiple Baseline Designs | |
| |
| |
| Types of multiple baseline designs | |
| |
| |
| Multiple baseline design across behaviors | |
| |
| |
| Multiple baseline design across subjects | |
| |
| |
| Multiple baseline across settings | |
| |
| |
| |
| Variations of Multiple Baseline Designs | |
| |
| |
| Nonconcurrent multiple baseline design | |
| |
| |
| Multiple-probe technique | |
| |
| |
| |
| Issues in Drug Evaluations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Alternating Treatments Design | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| History and terminology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Procedural Considerations | |
| |
| |
| Multiple-treatment interference | |
| |
| |
| Counterbalancing relevant experimental factors | |
| |
| |
| Number and sequencing of alternations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Examples of Alternating Treatments Designs | |
| |
| |
| Comparing treatment and no treatment conditions | |
| |
| |
| Comparing multiple treatments | |
| |
| |
| |
| Advantages of the Alternating Treatments Design | |
| |
| |
| |
| Visual Analysis of the Alternating Treatments Designs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Simultaneous Treatment Design | |
| |
| |
| |
| Statistical Analyses for Single-Case Experimental Designs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction and Overview | |
| |
| |
| |
| Single-Subject Experiments and Time-Series Data | |
| |
| |
| The nature of time-series data | |
| |
| |
| Mathematical and graphical description of a time series | |
| |
| |
| The problem of autocorrelation | |
| |
| |
| Autocorrelation and human behavior | |
| |
| |
| General comments | |
| |
| |
| |
| Specific Statistical Tests | |
| |
| |
| Conventional t and F tests | |
| |
| |
| Randomization tests | |
| |
| |
| Interrupted time-series analysis (ITSA) | |
| |
| |
| Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) Models | |
| |
| |
| Model building process | |
| |
| |
| Intervention (impact) analysis | |
| |
| |
| ITSA modeling strategies | |
| |
| |
| Box-Jenkins-Tiao strategy (Box & Tiao, 1965) | |
| |
| |
| Full series modeling strategy | |
| |
| |
| Interrupted time-series experiment (ITSE) | |
| |
| |
| Example | |
| |
| |
| Intervention analysis | |
| |
| |
| Other statistical tests | |
| |
| |
| Revusky's R[subscript n] (test of ranks) | |
| |
| |
| Split-middle technique | |
| |
| |
| Double bootstrap method | |
| |
| |
| Evaluation of statistical tests: which test to choose? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary and Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Beyond the Individual: Direct, Systematic, and Clinical Replication Procedures | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Direct Replication | |
| |
| |
| Definition of direct replication | |
| |
| |
| |
| two successful replications | |
| |
| |
| |
| four successful replications with design alterations during replications | |
| |
| |
| |
| mixed results in a multiple baseline design | |
| |
| |
| |
| simultaneous replication in a group | |
| |
| |
| Guidelines for direct replication | |
| |
| |
| |
| Systematic Replication | |
| |
| |
| Definition of systematic replication | |
| |
| |
| Example: differential attention in children | |
| |
| |
| Comment on replication | |
| |
| |
| Guidelines for systematic replication | |
| |
| |
| |
| Clinical Replication | |
| |
| |
| Definition of clinical replication | |
| |
| |
| Example: clinical replication with autistic children | |
| |
| |
| |
| Benchmarking | |
| |
| |
| |
| Practice Research Networks | |
| |
| |
| |
| Advantages of Replication of Single-Case Experiments | |
| |
| |
| Hiawatha Designs an Experiment | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Subject Index | |
| |
| |
| Name Index | |