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| Preface | |
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| About the Author | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Methodology and Research Design | |
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| Overview | |
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| Tasks of Research | |
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| Key Concepts Underlying Methodology | |
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| Parsimony | |
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| Plausible Rival Hypotheses | |
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| Findings versus Conclusions | |
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| Philosophy of Science, Research Methodology, and Statistical Inference | |
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| Characteristics of Research in Clinical Psychology | |
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| The "Psychology" of Research Methodology | |
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| Overview of the Book | |
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| Drawing Valid Inferences I: Internal and External Validity | |
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| Types of Validity | |
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| Internal Validity | |
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| Threats to Internal Validity | |
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| General Comments | |
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| External Validity | |
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| Threats to External Validity | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Perspectives on Internal and External Validity | |
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| Plausibility and Parsimony | |
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| Priority of Internal Validity | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| Drawing Valid Inferences II: Construct and Statistical Conclusion Validity | |
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| Construct Validity | |
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| Threats to Construct Validity | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Statistical Conclusion Validity | |
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| Overview of Essential Concepts | |
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| Threats to Statistical Conclusion Validity | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Experimental Precision | |
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| Holding Constant versus Controlling Sources of Variation | |
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| Tradeoffs | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| Sources of Artifact and Bias | |
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| Sources of Bias | |
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| Rationales, Scripts, and Procedures | |
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| Experimenter Expectancy Effects | |
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| Experimenter Characteristics | |
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| Situational and Contextual Cues | |
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| Subject Roles | |
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| Data Recording and Analysis | |
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| Subject-Selection Biases | |
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| The Sample: Who Is Selected for the Study? | |
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| Attrition: Who Remains in the Study? | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| Selection of the Research Problem and Design | |
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| Research Ideas | |
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| Sources of Ideas | |
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| Levels of Understanding and the Focus of the Study | |
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| Theory as a Guide to Research | |
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| Definition and Scope | |
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| Why Theory Is Needed | |
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| Generating versus Testing Hypotheses | |
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| From Ideas to Operations | |
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| Operational Definitions | |
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| Multiple Operations to Represent Constructs | |
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| Discrepancies among Definitions | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Variables to Investigate | |
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| Types of Variables | |
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| Investigation of Multiple Variables | |
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| Research Design Options | |
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| Types of Research | |
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| Design Strategies | |
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| Conditions of Experimentation | |
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| Time Frame for Research | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| Experimental Research: Group Designs | |
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| Subject Selection | |
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| Random Selection | |
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| Who Will Serve as Subjects and Why? | |
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| Subject Assignment and Group Formation | |
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| Random Assignment | |
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| Group Equivalence | |
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| Matching | |
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| Mismatching | |
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| Selected Group Designs | |
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| Pretest--Posttest Control Group Design | |
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| Posttest-Only Control Group Design | |
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| Solomon Four-Group Design | |
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| Factorial Designs | |
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| Quasi-Experimental Designs | |
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| Multiple-Treatment Designs | |
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| Crossover Design | |
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| Multiple-Treatment Counterbalanced Design | |
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| Considerations in Using the Designs | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| Control and Comparison Groups | |
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| Control Groups | |
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| No-Treatment Control Group | |
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| Waiting-List Control Group | |
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| No-Contact Control Group | |
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| Nonspecific-Treatment or "Attention-Placebo" Control Group | |
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| Routine or Standard Treatment | |
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| Yoked Control Group | |
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| Nonrandomly Assigned or Nonequivalent Control Group | |
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| Key Considerations in Group Selection | |
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| Progression of Control and Comparison Groups: Evaluating Psychotherapy | |
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| Treatment-Package Strategy | |
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| Dismantling-Treatment Strategy | |
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| Constructive-Treatment Strategy | |
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| Parametric-Treatment Strategy | |
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| Comparative-Treatment Strategy | |
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| Treatment-Moderator Strategy | |
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| Treatment-Mediator Strategy | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| Assessing the Impact of the Experimental Manipulation | |
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| Checking on the Experimental Manipulation | |
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| Types of Manipulations | |
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| Utility of Checking the Manipulation | |
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| Interpretive Problems in Checking the Manipulation | |
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| Varied Data Patterns | |
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| Special Issues and Considerations | |
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| Assessment Issues | |
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| The Influence of Nonmanipulated Variables | |
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| Excluding Subjects in the Data Analyses | |
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| Establishing Potent Manipulations | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| Observational Research: Case-Control and Cohort Designs | |
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| Case-Control Designs | |
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| Cross-Sectional Design | |
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| Retrospective Design | |
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| Considerations in Using Case-Control Designs | |
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| Cohort Designs | |
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| Single-Group Cohort Design | |
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| Multigroup Cohort Design | |
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| Accelerated, Multicohort Longitudinal Design | |
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| Considerations in Using Cohort Designs | |
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| Critical Issues in Designing and Interpreting Observational Studies | |
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| Specifying the Construct | |
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| Selecting Groups | |
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| Time Line and Causal Inferences | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| The Case Study and Single-Case Research Designs | |
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| The Case Study | |
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| The Value of the Case Study | |
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| Illustrations | |
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| Limitations of the Case Study | |
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| Single-Case Experimental Designs: Key Characteristics | |
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| Continuous Assessment | |
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| Baseline Assessment | |
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| Stability of Performance | |
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| Major Experimental Design Strategies | |
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| ABAB Designs | |
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| Multiple-Baseline Designs | |
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| Changing-Criterion Designs | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Data Evaluation in Single-Case Research | |
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| Criteria for Visual Inspection | |
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| Problems and Considerations | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| Evaluation of the Single Case in Clinical Work | |
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| Quasi-Experiments with the Single Case | |
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| What to Do to Improve the Quality of Inferences | |
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| Design Variations | |
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| Case Illustrations | |
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| Methods for Assessment and Evaluation in Clinical Practice | |
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| Steps for Evaluation in Clinical Work | |
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| Case Illustration | |
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| Issues and Limitations | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| Qualitative Research Methods: An Overview | |
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| Key Characteristics | |
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| Background | |
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| Definition and Core Features | |
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| Contrast of Qualitative and Quantitative Research | |
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| Methods and Analyses | |
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| The Data for Qualitative Analysis | |
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| Drawing Valid Inferences | |
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| Generality of the Results | |
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| Illustrations | |
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| Inner-City Youth Who Cease to Commit Crimes | |
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| Gender, Power, and Who Gets the Remote Control during TV Time | |
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| Single Women and Their Experience | |
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| Parents' Experience in Treatment for Their Children | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Contributions of Qualitative Research | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| Assessment Methods and Strategies | |
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| Selecting Measures for Research: Key Considerations | |
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| Construct Validity | |
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| Psychometric Characteristics | |
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| Sensitivity of the Measure | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Using Available Measures or Devising New Measures | |
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| Using a Standardized Measure | |
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| Varying the Use or Contents of an Existing Measure | |
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| Developing a New Measure | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Modalities and Methods of Assessment | |
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| Global Ratings | |
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| Self-Report Inventories, Questionnaires, and Scales | |
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| Projective Techniques | |
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| Direct Observations of Behavior | |
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| Psychobiological Measures | |
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| Computerized Assessment | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Unobtrusiveness and Reactivity of Psychological Measures | |
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| Nature of the Problem | |
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| Potential Solutions with Traditional (Obtrusive) Measures | |
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| Unobtrusive Measures | |
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| Simple Observation | |
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| Observation in Contrived Situations | |
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| Archival Records | |
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| Physical Traces | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Measurement Strategies and Issues | |
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| Use of Multiple Measures | |
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| Interrelations of Different Measures | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| Assessment and Evaluation of Interventions | |
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| Assessing Clinical Significance of the Changes | |
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| Comparison Methods | |
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| Subjective Evaluation | |
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| Social Impact Measures | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Scope and Breadth of the Changes | |
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| Characteristics of the Treatment | |
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| Disseminability of Treatment | |
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| Cost | |
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| Acceptability of Treatment | |
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| Assessment During the Course of Treatment | |
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| Pre-Post and Continuous Assessment | |
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| Evaluating the Mechanisms of Change | |
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| Follow-up Assessment | |
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| Attrition | |
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| Practical Assessment Decisions and Options | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| Statistical Methods of Data Evaluation | |
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| Significance Tests and the Null Hypothesis | |
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| Overview | |
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| Significance Level (alpha) | |
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| Power | |
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| Ways to Increase Power | |
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| Data Analyses and Designing the Study | |
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| Special Topics in Data Analysis | |
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| Intent-to-Treat Analysis | |
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| Analyses Involving Multiple Comparisons | |
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| Multiple Outcomes: Multivariate and Univariate Analyses | |
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| Objections to Statistical Significance Testing | |
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| Major Concerns | |
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| Misinterpretations | |
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| Significance Testing and Failures to Replicate | |
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| Alternatives or Supplements to Tests of Significance | |
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| Magnitude and Strength of Effect | |
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| Confidence Intervals | |
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| Meta-Analysis | |
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| Statistical Significance, Magnitude of Effect, and Clinical Significance | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| Interpretation of the Data | |
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| Interpreting the Results of a Study | |
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| Overview | |
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| Common Leaps in Language and Conceptualization of the Findings | |
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| More Data Analyses Can Enhance Data Interpretation | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Negative Results or No-Difference Findings | |
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| Ambiguity of Negative Results | |
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| When Negative Results Are Interpretable | |
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| When Negative Results Are Important | |
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| Replication | |
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| Types of Replication | |
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| Importance of Replication | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| Ethical Issues and Guidelines for Research | |
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| Contemporary Context and Scope of the Issues | |
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| Critical Issues in Research | |
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| Deception | |
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| Debriefing | |
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| Invasion of Privacy | |
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| Informed Consent | |
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| Conditions and Elements | |
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| Consent Forms | |
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| Letter and Spirit of Consent | |
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| Intervention Research Issues | |
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| Informing Clients about Treatment | |
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| Withholding the Intervention | |
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| Control Groups and Treatments of Questionable Efficacy | |
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| Consent and the Interface with Threats to Validity | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Ethical Guidelines for Research Practices | |
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| Ethical Issues and Scientific Integrity | |
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| Fraud in Science | |
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| Allocation of Credit | |
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| Sharing of Materials and Data | |
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| Conflict of Interest | |
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| Guiding Principles and Responsibilities | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| Publication and Communication of Research Findings | |
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| Publication Process: An Overview | |
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| Methodologically Informed Manuscript Preparation | |
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| Overview | |
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| Main Sections of the Article | |
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| Questions to Guide Manuscript Preparation | |
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| General Comments | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| Closing Comments: Methodology in Perspective | |
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| Goals of Methodology | |
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| Substantive Contribution of Methodology | |
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| Final Word: Abbreviated Guidelines for a Well-Designed Study | |
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| Glossary | |
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| References | |
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| Author Index | |
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| Subject Index | |