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Each chapter ends with a Summary, Key Terms, and a Logic Challenge | |
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Setting the Stage | |
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What Logic Studies | |
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Statements and Arguments | |
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Recognizing Arguments | |
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Check Your Understanding 1B | |
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Arguments and Explanations | |
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Check Your Understanding 1C | |
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Truth and Logic | |
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E. Deductive and Inductive Arguments | |
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Check Your Understanding 1E | |
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Deductive Arguments: Validity and Truth | |
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Logical Form | |
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Counterexamples | |
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Check Your Understanding 1F | |
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Inductive Arguments: Strength and Truth | |
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Techniques of Analysis | |
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Check Your Understanding 1G | |
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Logic Challenge: The Problem of the Hats | |
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Informal Logic | |
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Language Matters | |
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Intension and Extension | |
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Terms, Use, and Mention | |
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Two Kinds of Meaning | |
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Proper Names | |
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Check Your Understanding 2A | |
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Using Intensional Definitions | |
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Synonymous Definitions | |
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Word Origin Definitions | |
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Operational Definitions | |
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Definition by Genus and Difference | |
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Using Extensional Definitions | |
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Ostensive Definitions | |
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Enumerative Definitions | |
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Definition by Subclass | |
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Check Your Understanding 2C | |
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Applying Definitions | |
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Stipulative Definitions | |
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Lexical Definitions | |
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Functional Definitions | |
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Precising Definitions | |
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Theoretical Definitions | |
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Persuasive Definitions | |
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Check Your Understanding 2D | |
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Guidelines for Informative Definitions | |
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Check Your Understanding 2E | |
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Cognitive and Emotive Meaning | |
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Check Your Understanding 2F | |
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Factual and Verbal Disputes | |
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Check Your Understanding 2G | |
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Logic Challenge: The Path | |
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Diagrams and Analysis | |
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The Basics of Diagramming Arguments | |
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Check Your Understanding 3A | |
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Incomplete Arguments | |
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Check Your Understanding 3B | |
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Rhetorical Language | |
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Rhetorical Questions | |
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Rhetorical Conditionals | |
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Rhetorical Disjunctions | |
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Check Your Understanding 3C | |
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Necessary and Sufficient Conditions | |
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Check Your Understanding 3D | |
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Logic Challenge: The Train to Vegas | |
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Informal Fallacies | |
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Fallacies of Relevance | |
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Argument Against the Person | |
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Tu Quoque | |
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Appeal to the People | |
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Appeal to Pity | |
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Appeal to Force | |
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Appeal to Ignorance | |
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Missing the Point | |
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Appeal to an Unqualified Authority | |
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Summary of Fallacies of Relevance | |
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Check Your Understanding 4A | |
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Fallacies of Unwarranted Assumption | |
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Begging the Question | |
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Complex Question | |
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Biased Sample | |
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Accident | |
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Hasty Generalization | |
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Misleading Precision | |
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False Dichotomy | |
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False Dilemma | |
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Coincidence | |
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Post Hoc Fallacy | |
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Common Cause Fallacy | |
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Slippery Slope | |
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Summary of Fallacies of Unwarranted Assumption | |
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Check Your Understanding 4B | |
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Fallacies of Ambiguity or Diversion | |
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Equivocation | |
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Amphiboly | |
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Composition | |
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Division | |
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Emphasis | |
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Straw Man Fallacy | |
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Red Herring Fallacy | |
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Check Your Understanding 4C | |
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Summary of Fallacies of Ambiguity or Diversion | |
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Recognizing Fallacies in Ordinary Language | |
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Check Your Understanding 4D | |
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Logic Challenge: A Clever Problem | |
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Formal Logic | |
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Categorical Propositions | |
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Categorical Propositions | |
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Check Your Understanding 5A | |
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Quantity, Quality, and Distribution | |
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Check Your Understanding 5B | |
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The Square of Opposition | |
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Check Your Understanding 5C | |
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Conversion, Obversion, and Contraposition | |
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Conversion | |
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Obversion | |
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Contraposition | |
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Check Your Understanding 5D | |
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Existential Import | |
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The Modern Square of Opposition | |
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Conversion, Obversion, and Contraposition Revisited | |
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Check Your Understanding 5G | |
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Venn Diagrams and the Traditional Square | |
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Check Your Understanding 5H | |
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I | |
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Missing Plural Nouns | |
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Nonstandard Verbs | |
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Singular Propositions | |
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Adverbs and Pronouns | |
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"It Is False That . . ." | |
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Implied Quantifiers | |
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Nonstandard Quantifiers | |
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Conditional Statements | |
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Exclusive Propositions | |
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"The Only" | |
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Propositions Requiring Two Translations | |
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Check Your Understanding 5I | |
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Logic Challenge: Group Relationship | |
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Categorical Syllogisms | |
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Standard-Form Categorical Syllogisms | |
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Diagramming in the Modern Interpretation | |
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Diagramming A-propositions | |
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Diagramming E-propositions | |
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Diagramming I-propositions | |
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Diagramming O-propositions | |
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Wrapping Up the X | |
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Is the Syllogism Valid? | |
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Check Your Understanding 6B | |
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Diagramming in the Traditional Interpretation | |
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A-propositions | |
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E-propositions | |
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When Both Interpretations Give the Same Results | |
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Check Your Understanding 6C | |
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Mood and Figure | |
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Check Your Understanding 6D | |
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Rules and Fallacies | |
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Check Your Understanding 6E | |
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Ordinary Language Arguments | |
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Reducing the Number of Terms in an Argument | |
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Check Your Understanding 6F.1 | |
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Paraphrasing Ordinary Language Arguments | |
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Categorical Propositions and Multiple Arguments | |
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Check Your Understanding 6F.2 | |
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Enthymemes | |
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Check Your Understanding 6G | |
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Sorites | |
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Check Your Understanding 6H | |
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Logic Challenge: The Four Circles | |
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Propositional Logic | |
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Logical Operators and Translations | |
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Simple and Compound Statements | |
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Negation | |
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Conjunction | |
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Disjunction | |
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Conditional Statements | |
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Distinguishing "If" from "Only if" | |
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Biconditional | |
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Check Your Understanding 7A | |
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Complex Statements | |
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Well-Formed Formulas | |
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Check Your Understanding 7B.1 | |
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Main Operator | |
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Check Your Understanding 7B.2 | |
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Translations and the Main Operator | |
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Check Your Understanding 7B.3 | |
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Truth Functions | |
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Defining the Five Logical Operators | |
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Negation | |
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Conjunction | |
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Disjunction | |
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Conditional | |
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Biconditional | |
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Check Your Understanding 7C | |
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Operator Truth Tables and Ordinary Language | |
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Truth Tables for Propositions | |
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Arranging the Truth Values | |
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The Order of Operations | |
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Check Your Understanding 7D.1 | |
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Propositions with Assigned Truth Values | |
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Check Your Understanding 7D.2 | |
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Contingent and Noncontingent Statements | |
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Tautology | |
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Self-Contradiction | |
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Check Your Understanding 7E | |
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Logical Equivalence | |
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Check Your Understanding 7F | |
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Contradictory, Consistent, and Inconsistent Statements | |
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Check Your Understanding 7G | |
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Truth Tables for Arguments | |
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Validity | |
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Technical Validity | |
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Check Your Understanding 7H | |
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I | |
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Thinking Through An Argument | |
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A Shorter Truth Table | |
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Check Your Understanding 7I.1 | |
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Necessary and Sufficient Conditions | |
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Argument Form | |
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Check Your Understanding 7I.2 | |
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Examining Statements for Consistency | |
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Check Your Understanding 7I.3 | |
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Logic Challenge: A Card Problem | |
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Natural Deduction | |
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Natural Deduction | |
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Implication Rules I | |
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Modus Ponens (MP) | |
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Modus Tollens (MT) | |
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Hypothetical Syllogism (HS) | |
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Disjunctive Syllogism (DS) | |
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Justification--Applying the Rules of Inference | |
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Check Your Understanding 8B | |
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Tactics and Strategy | |
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Working Through a Proof | |
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Check Your Understanding 8C | |
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Implication Rules II | |
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Constructive Dilemma (CD) | |
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Simplification (Simp) | |
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Conjunction (Conj) | |
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Addition (Add) | |
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Check Your Understanding 8D | |
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Replacement Rules I | |
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De Morgan (DM) | |
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Commutation (Com) | |
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Association (Assoc) | |
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Distribution (Dist) | |
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Double Negation (DN) | |
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Check Your Understanding 8E | |
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Replacement Rules II | |
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Transposition (Trans) | |
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Material Implication (Impl) | |
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Material Equivalence (Equiv) | |
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Exportation (Exp) | |
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Tautology (Taut) | |
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Check Your Understanding 8F | |
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Conditional Proof | |
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Check Your Understanding 8G | |
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Indirect Proof | |
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Check Your Understanding 8H | |
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Logic Challenge: The Truth | |
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Predicate Logic | |
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Translating Ordinary Language | |
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Singular Statements | |
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Universal Statements | |
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Particular Statements | |
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Paying Attention to Meaning | |
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Check Your Understanding 9A | |
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Four New Rules of Inference | |
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Universal Instantiation | |
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Universal Generalization | |
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Existential Generalization | |
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Existential Instantiation | |
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Summary of the Four Rules | |
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Tactics and Strategy | |
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Check Your Understanding 9B | |
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Change of Quantifier | |
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Check Your Understanding 9C | |
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Conditional and Indirect Proof | |
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Conditional Proof | |
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Indirect Proof | |
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Check Your Understanding 9D | |
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Proving Invalidity | |
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Counterexample Method | |
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Finite Universe Method | |
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Indirect Truth Tables | |
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Check Your Understanding 9E | |
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Relational Predicates | |
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Translations | |
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Check Your Understanding 9F.1 | |
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Proofs | |
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A New Restriction | |
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Change of Quantifier | |
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Conditional Proof and Indirect Proof | |
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Check Your Understanding 9F.2 | |
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Identity | |
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Simple Identity Statements | |
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"Only" | |
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"The Only" | |
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"No . . . Except" | |
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"All Except" | |
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Superlatives | |
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"At Most" | |
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"At Least" | |
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"Exactly" | |
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Definite Descriptions | |
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Summary of Identity Translations | |
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Check Your Understanding 9G.1 | |
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Proofs | |
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Check Your Understanding 9G.2 | |
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Logic Challenge: Your Name and Age, Please | |
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Inductive Logic | |
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Analogical Arguments | |
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The Framework of Analogical Arguments | |
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Check Your Understanding 10A | |
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Analyzing Analogical Arguments | |
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Criteria for Analyzing Analogical Arguments | |
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Check Your Understanding 10B | |
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Strategies of Evaluation | |
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Disanalogies | |
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Counteranalogy | |
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Unintended Consequences | |
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Combining Strategies | |
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Check Your Understanding 10C | |
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Logic Challenge: Beat the Cheat | |
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Legal Arguments | |
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Deductive and Inductive Reasoning | |
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Conditional Statements | |
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Necessary and Sufficient Conditions | |
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Disjunction and Conjunction | |
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Analyzing a Complex Rule | |
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Check Your Understanding 11E | |
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Analogies | |
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The Role of Precedent | |
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Check Your Understanding 11G | |
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Logic Challenge: A Guilty Problem | |
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Moral Arguments | |
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Value Judgments | |
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Justifying "Should" | |
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Types of Value Judgments | |
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Taste and Value | |
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Check Your Understanding 12A | |
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Moral Theories | |
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Emotivism | |
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Consequentialism | |
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Egoism | |
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Utilitarianism | |
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Deontology | |
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Situation Ethics | |
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Relativism | |
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Contrasting Moral Theories | |
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Check Your Understanding 12B | |
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The Naturalistic Fallacy | |
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The Structure of Moral Arguments | |
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Analogies and Moral Arguments | |
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Check Your Understanding 12E | |
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Justifying Moral Premises | |
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Check Your Understanding 12F | |
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Logic Challenge: Dangerous Cargo | |
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Statistical Arguments and Probability | |
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Samples and Populations | |
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Check Your Understanding 13A | |
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Statistical Averages | |
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Check Your Understanding 13B | |
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Standard Deviation | |
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Dividing the Curve | |
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The Size of the Standard Deviation | |
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How to Calculate Standard Deviation | |
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Check Your Understanding 13C | |
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What If the Results Are Skewed? | |
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The Misuse of Statistics | |
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Check Your Understanding 13E | |
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Probability Theories | |
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A Priori Theory | |
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Relative Frequency Theory | |
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Subjectivist Theory | |
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Probability Calculus | |
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Conjunction Methods | |
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Disjunction Methods | |
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Negation Method | |
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Check Your Understanding 13G | |
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True Odds in Games of Chance | |
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I | |
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Check Your Understanding 13I | |
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Logic Challenge: The Second Child | |
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Causality and Scientific Arguments | |
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Causality | |
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Mill's Methods | |
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Method of Agreement | |
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Method of Difference | |
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Joint Method of Agreement and Difference | |
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Method of Residues | |
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Method of Concomitant Variations | |
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Check Your Understanding 14B | |
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Limitations of Mill's Methods | |
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Theoretical and Experimental Science | |
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Inference to the Best Explanation | |
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Hypothesis Testing, Experiments, and Predictions | |
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Controlled Experiments | |
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Determining Causality | |
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Science and Superstition | |
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The Need for a Fair Test | |
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Verifiable Predictions | |
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Nontrivial Predictions | |
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Connecting the Hypothesis and Prediction | |
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Science and Superstition | |
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The Allure of Superstition | |
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Check Your Understanding 14G | |
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Logic Challenge: The Scale and the Coins | |
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Analyzing a Long Essay | |
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Childbed Fever | |
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Vienna | |
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Check Your Understanding 15B | |
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Miasm and Contagion | |
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Check Your Understanding 15C | |
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Semmelweis' Account of the Discovery | |
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Check Your Understanding 15D | |
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Summary of Semmelweis' Account | |
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Initial Questions | |
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Check Your Understanding 15E | |
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A New Interpretation | |
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Check Your Understanding 15F | |
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Logic Challenge: A Relative Problem | |
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Bibliography | |
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Glossary | |
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Answers to Selected Exercises | |
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Index | |