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| Abbreviations and Shorthand Forms in Footnotes | |
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| Acknowledgements | |
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| Table of Authorities | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Substantive Law | |
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| Individual Accountability for Human Rights Abuses: Historical and Legal Underpinnings | |
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| A Brief History of Individual Accountability | |
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| Four Bodies of Law | |
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| The Nature of Legal Responsibility | |
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| Individual Accountability as a Holistic Framework | |
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| Methodology and Sources of International Law | |
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| The Principles of Legality: Nullum Crimen Sine Lege and Related Concepts | |
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| A Word on Cultural Relativism | |
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| Genocide and the Imperfections of Codification | |
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| Background and Preparation of the Genocide Convention | |
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| Definition of Genocide | |
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| Incitment to Genocide | |
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| Genocide under Customary International Law | |
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| Theoretical and Practical Challenges | |
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| Crimes Against Humanity and the Inexactitude of Custom | |
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| Evolution of the Concept | |
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| Core Definitional Issues: Elements of the International Crime | |
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| Offenses Constituting Crimes Against Humanity | |
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| Theoretical and Practical Challenges | |
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| War Crimes and the Limitations of Accountability for Acts in Armed Conflict | |
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| From Ancient Origins to Modern Codes | |
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| Offenses during International Conflicts | |
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| Offenses during Non-International Conflicts | |
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| Afterword on Destruction of Cultural Property | |
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| Other Abuses Incurring Individual Responsibility Under International Law | |
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| Slavery and Forced Labor | |
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| Torture | |
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| Racial Discrimination and Apartheid | |
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| Forced Disappearances | |
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| Terrorism | |
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| A Brief Word on Crimes Against Peace | |
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| Expanding and Contracting Culpability: Complicity, Defenses, and Other Barriers to Criminality | |
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| Forms of Individual Criminal Responsibility | |
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| Defenses under International Law | |
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| Statutes of Limitations | |
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| Theoretical and Practical Challenges | |
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| Mechanisms for Accountability | |
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| Mechanisms for Accountability: Framing the Issues | |
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| Legal Requirements of Individual Accountability | |
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| Accountability in Context | |
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| The Forum of First Resort: National Tribunals | |
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| A Jurisdictional Primer | |
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| Prosecutions before National Tribunals: Four Contemporary Cases | |
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| Prosecutions before National Courts of Other States | |
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| Opportunities and Challenges | |
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| The Progeny of Nuremberg: International Criminal Tribunals | |
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| The Nuremberg and Related Tribunals | |
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| The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia | |
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| International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda | |
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| The International Criminal Court | |
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| Hybrid or Internationalized Tribunals | |
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| Opportunities and Challenges | |
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| Afterword on the International Court of Justice and Regional Human Rights Courts | |
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| Non-Prosecutorial Options: Investigatory Commissions, Civil Suits, Immigration Measures, and Lustration | |
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| Investigatory Commissions: Accountability through Truth and Acknowledgment | |
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| Civil Suits: An Alternative Day in Court for Victims | |
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| Immigration Measures: Denying Refuge to Offenders | |
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| A Word on Lustration | |
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| Developing the Case: Comments on Evidence and Judicial Assistance | |
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| Evidence: A Dearth of Uniform Standards | |
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| Judicial Assistance and the Limits of International Cooperation | |
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| A Case Study: The Atrocities of The Khmer Rouge | |
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| The Khmer Rouge Rule over Cambodia: A Historical Overview | |
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| The Philosophy and Structure of the Khmer Rouge | |
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| The Pattern of Abuses | |
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| Hostilities with Vietnam | |
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| The Khmer Rouge since 1979 | |
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| Applying the Law | |
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| Genocide | |
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| Crimes Against Humanity | |
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| War Crimes | |
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| Other Acts Incurring Individual Criminal Responsibility | |
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| Defenses | |
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| Crimes under Cambodian Law | |
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| Engaging the Mechanisms | |
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| Framing the Options | |
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| National Trials | |
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| International Criminal Tribunals | |
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| The Option Realized: A Hybrid Tribunal | |
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| Investigatory Commissions | |
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| Civil Suits | |
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| Immigration Measures | |
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| Lustration | |
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| International Court of Justice | |
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| Evidence and Judicial Assistance | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Striving for Justice: The Prospects for Individual Accountability | |
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| The State of the Law | |
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| The Processes for Pursuing Justice | |
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| The Fate of Individual Accountability: A Word of Caution | |
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| Appendices | |
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| Charter of the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg | |
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| Allied Control Council Law No. 10 | |
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| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide | |
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| Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field | |
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| Geneva Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea | |
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| Geneva Convention (III) Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War | |
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| Geneva Convention (IV) Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War | |
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| Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery | |
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| International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights | |
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| Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity | |
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| International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid | |
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| Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I) | |
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| Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II) | |
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| Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment | |
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| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia | |
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| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda | |
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| International Law Commission Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind | |
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| Statute of the International Criminal Court | |
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| United States Alien Tort Claims Act | |
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| United States Torture Victim Protection Act | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Index | |