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Physical and biological properties and principles related to animal movement | |
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Why move? | |
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Environmental media | |
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Physics and energetics of movement | |
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Biomechanics of locomotor support | |
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Scaling: the importance of size | |
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Dimensions and units | |
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Muscles and skeletons: the building blocks of animal movement | |
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Muscles | |
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Skeletons | |
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Summary | |
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Movement on land | |
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Biological wheels: why so few? | |
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Limbs as propulsors: support and swing phases | |
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Limb mechanical advantage and joint moments: interaction of limb posture and ground reaction force | |
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Locomotor gaits | |
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Maneuverability versus stability | |
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Stride frequency and stride length versus speed and size | |
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Mass-spring properties of running | |
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Froude number and dynamic similarity | |
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Inferring gait and speed of fossil animals | |
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Mechanical work: potential and kinetic energy changes during locomotion | |
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Muscle work versus force economy | |
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Tendon springs and muscle dampers | |
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Summary | |
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Movement in water | |
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Thrust and drag | |
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Inertia, viscosity and Reynolds number | |
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Steady flow: drag and streamlines | |
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Swimming fish, mammals and cephalopods: movement at high Reynolds number | |
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Jet-based fluid propulsion | |
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Movement at low Reynolds number: the reversibility of flow | |
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Air-water interface: surface swimming, striding and sailing | |
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Muscle function and force transmission in swimming | |
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Summary | |
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Movement in air | |
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Lift, drag and thrust in flight | |
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Power requirements for steady flight | |
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Gliding flight | |
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Flapping flight | |
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Flight motors and wing anatomy | |
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Maneuvering during flight | |
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Unsteady mechanisms | |
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Summary | |
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Cell crawling | |
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Organization of the cytoskeleton in animal cells | |
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Cell crawling: formation of lamellipodia and pseudopodia for traction and locomotor work | |
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Dynamics of actin nucleation, polymerization and degradation | |
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Cytoskeletal mechanisms of cell movement | |
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Cell-surface receptors mediate sensori-locomotor behavior of unicellular organisms | |
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Summary | |
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Jumping, climbing and suspensory locomotion | |
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Jump take-off: generating mechanical power | |
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Scaling of jump performance | |
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Other mechanisms for increasing jump distance | |
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Other morphological adaptations for jumping | |
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Ground forces and joint power underlying vertebrate jumping | |
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Climbing | |
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Suspensory locomotion at larger size | |
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Summary | |
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Metabolic pathways for fueling locomotion | |
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ATP: currency for converting chemical energy into mechanical work | |
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Aerobic metabolism: oxygen consumption | |
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Glycolysis: anaerobic metabolism | |
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Mitochondria: citric acid cycle and cytochrome oxidative phosphorylation | |
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Quantifying energy use: respirometry measurements of oxygen consumption or carbon dioxide production | |
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Sources and time course of energy usage during exercise | |
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Endurance and fatigue | |
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Intermittent exercise | |
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Other adaptations for increased aerobic capacity | |
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Summary | |
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Energy cost of locomotion | |
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Energy cost versus speed of terrestrial locomotion | |
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Energy cost versus body size | |
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Ectothermic versus endothermic energy patterns | |
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Energy cost of incline running | |
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Cost of swimming | |
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Cost of flight | |
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Locomotor costs compared | |
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Summary | |
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Neuromuscular control of movement | |
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Sensory elements | |
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Sensorimotor integration via local reflex pathways | |
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Muscle recruitment in relation to functional demand: force, speed and endurance | |
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Reciprocal inhibition: a basic feature of sensorimotor neural circuits | |
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Distributed control: the role of central pattern generators | |
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Two case studies of motor control | |
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Summary | |
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References | |
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Index | |