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| List of Tables | |
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| Preface | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Evolution and Adaptation | |
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| What Is Evolution? | |
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| The Theory of Evolution | |
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| The Evidence for Evolution | |
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| Darwinism: Evolution by Natural Selection | |
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| Natural Selection | |
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| Evidence for Natural Selection | |
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| The Origin of Heritable Variation | |
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| How Variation Takes Form | |
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| Differences in Degree of Development | |
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| Differences in Direction of Development | |
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| The Limits of Natural Selection | |
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| Sexual Selection | |
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| Adaptationism: An Evolutionary Perspective | |
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| Other Paths to Adaptation | |
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| Important Evolutionary Concepts | |
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| A Place In Nature: Humans In An Evolving World | |
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| A Place in Time | |
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| A Place in Life: Biological Classification | |
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| Comparative Background of the Human Species | |
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| Kingdom Animalia | |
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| Phylum Chordata | |
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| Subphylum Vertebrata | |
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| Tetrapods | |
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| Class Mammalia | |
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| Order Primates | |
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| Family Hominidae | |
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| The Emergence of Humans | |
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| Musculoskeletal System | |
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| Bones, Joints, and Muscles | |
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| Stresses and Strains | |
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| Cartilage | |
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| Bone | |
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| Development and Growth of Bone | |
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| Remodeling of Bone | |
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| Adaptations of Mammalian Bone | |
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| Ligament and Tendon | |
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| Joints | |
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| Accessory and Conjunct Motions | |
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| Muscle | |
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| Concepts of Functional Design | |
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| Reduction of Mass | |
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| Energetic Efficiency | |
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| The Skull | |
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| The Human Skull | |
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| Evolution of the Mammalian Skull | |
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| Origins of the Vertebrate Cranium | |
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| Mammalian Modifications of the Tetrapod Skull | |
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| Changes in the Primate Skull | |
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| The Primate Face | |
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| Orbital Convergence | |
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| Shortening the Face | |
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| The Cranial Vault | |
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| Browridges | |
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| Basicranial Flexion | |
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| Mechanics of Head Balance | |
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| Jaws | |
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| The Mandibular Symphysis and the Chin | |
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| The Australopithecine Chewing Complex | |
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| The Problem of Skeletal and Dental Reduction | |
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| Teeth | |
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| Tooth Development | |
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| Evolution of Vertebrate Teeth | |
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| Origins of Teeth | |
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| Mammalian Dental Adaptations | |
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| The Tribosphenic Molar | |
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| Hominin Teeth | |
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| Dental Formulae | |
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| Anterior Dentition | |
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| Posterior Dentition | |
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| The Dental Arcade and the Chewing Cycle | |
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| Hominin Enamel Adaptations | |
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| Dental Adaptations of the Neanderthals | |
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| Modern Trends and Variations in Human Dentition | |
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| The Spine | |
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| Stages in the Evolution of Vertebrate Body Design | |
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| Fish | |
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| Early Tetrapods | |
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| Mammals | |
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| Structure of the Human Vertebral Column | |
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| Intervertebral Joints | |
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| Regions of the Human Spine | |
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| Curvatures of the Spine | |
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| Fossil Evidence | |
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| Musculature of the Trunk | |
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| The Upper Limb | |
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| Evolution of the Forelimb | |
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| The Origin of Tetrapod Limbs | |
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| The Mammalian Forelimb | |
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| Hominoid Adaptations | |
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| The Pectoral Girdle | |
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| The Elbow | |
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| Hands | |
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| Knuckle-Walking | |
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| Human Hands | |
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| Adaptations for Manipulation | |
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| Evolution of the Thumb | |
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| Fossil Tool-Makers? | |
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| The Lower Limb | |
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| The Pelvis | |
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| Adaptations of the Hip Joint for Bipedalism | |
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| The Thigh | |
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| The Knee | |
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| Adaptations of the Knee for Bipedalism | |
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| The Leg | |
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| The Ankle and Foot | |
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| The Bones of the Foot | |
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| The Toes | |
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| Evolutionary Trends in Ankle and Foot Musculature | |
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| The Longitudinal Arch of the Foot | |
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| Conversion Mechanism of the Foot | |
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| Support for the Arch | |
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| Function of the Longitudinal Arch | |
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| Functional Variation in the Design of the Arch | |
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| The Human Strategy: Bipedalism | |
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| The Transition to Bipedalism | |
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| The Pelvis and Hip | |
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| The Knee | |
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| The Foot | |
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| The Australopithecine Body | |
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| After the Australopithecines | |
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| The Adaptive Significance of Bipedalism | |
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| Historical Speculations Concerning the Origin of Bipedalism | |
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| The Problem with Cultural Models | |
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| Reconstructing the Transition | |
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| The Nervous System | |
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| Organization Of The Brain | |
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| Initial Development of Nervous System | |
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| General Anatomy of the Brain | |
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| The Brainstem | |
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| The Forebrain | |
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| Diencephalon | |
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| Cerebrum | |
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| Functional Organization of the Brain | |
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| Specific and Nonspecific Projections | |
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| Consciousness | |
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| Functional Localization | |
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| Somatotopic Organization | |
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| Phylogenetic Layering | |
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| The Motor System | |
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| Decussation | |
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| Functional Lateralization | |
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| Language and Lateralization | |
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| The Evolution of Language and Lateralization | |
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| Lateralization in Primates | |
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| Evidence of Language in Nonhuman Primates | |
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| Fossil Evidence for Language | |
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| Integration with Other Systems | |
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| The Neuroendocrine System | |
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| The Autonomic Nerves | |
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| The Neuroendocrine Axis | |
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| Neuroendocrine Integration: The Stress Response | |
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| Integration with the Immune System | |
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| Integration with Consciousness: The Limbic System | |
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| Emotions | |
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| The Reward System | |
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| Memory | |
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| The Human Strategy: Brain Size | |
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| Comparing Brains | |
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| The Relation of Brain and Body Size | |
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| Brain Size and Function | |
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| The Rate of Hominin Brain Evolution | |
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| Selecting for Brain Size | |
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| The Social Model | |
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| Dietary Models | |
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| Metabolic Needs | |
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| Environmental Models | |
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| Overcoming Constraints | |
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| Selecting for Reorganization and New Abilities | |
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| Developmental Possibilities | |
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| Qualitative Differences in Function | |
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| The Special Senses | |
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| Olfaction | |
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| Central Pathways | |
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| The Evolution of Smell | |
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| The Vomeronasal Organ | |
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| Taste | |
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| Vision | |
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| Frontally Directed Vision | |
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| Photoreceptors and Color Vision | |
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| Evolution of Vision in the Brain | |
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| Equilibrium | |
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| Hearing | |
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| The Outer and Middle Ears | |
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| The Evolution of the Ear | |
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| Systems Of Homeostasis | |
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| Skin | |
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| The Anatomy of Skin | |
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| The Epidermis | |
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| The Dermis | |
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| The Hypodermis | |
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| Differences among Vertebrates | |
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| Getting a Grip: Fingerprints and Nails | |
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| Friction Pads and Fingerprints | |
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| Nails | |
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| Hair | |
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| Hair Reduction | |
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| Glands of the Skin | |
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| Apocrine Glands | |
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| Eccrine Glands | |
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| Sweat and Hair Reduction as a Human Strategy for Thermoregulation | |
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| A Problem of Fat | |
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| Fat as Insulation | |
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| Fat Is an Adaptation for the Brain | |
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| Explaining Human Skin Pigmentation | |
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| Melanin and Photoprotection | |
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| The Vitamin D Hypothesis | |
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| Other Hypotheses of Human Pigmentation | |
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| More Pigments | |
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| Hair and Eye Color | |
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| Melanin in Other Tissues | |
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| Genetics of Skin Pigmentation | |
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| Digestion and Diet | |
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| A Natural Diet | |
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| The Digestive System | |
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| The Coelom and the Peritoneum | |
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| Tissue Structure of the Alimentary Canal | |
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| Organs of the Digestive Tract | |
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| The Start of the Canal | |
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| Esophagus | |
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| Stomach | |
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| Small Intestine | |
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| Accessory Glands | |
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| Colon | |
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| Reconstructing the Diet of Early Hominins | |
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| The Evidence of Dental Anatomy | |
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| The Evidence of Dental Microwear | |
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| Bone Composition and Diet | |
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| Archaeological Evidence of Meat Consumption | |
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| And Other Evidence. . . | |
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| Later Hominins | |
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| A Backward Look from the Present | |
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| Modern Hunter-Gatherer Diet | |
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| Feeding the Brain | |
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| Anatomical Adaptations | |
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| Frugivory, Carnivory, Omnivory | |
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| Recent Changes in Diet and Health | |
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| Respiration | |
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| Evolution of Vertebrate Breathing | |
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| The Problem of Gas Exchange and Transport | |
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| Gills | |
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| Lungs and Swim Bladders | |
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| Breathing in Simple Tetrapods | |
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| Breathing in Mammals | |
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| Mechanics of Human Respiration | |
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| Functional Specializations of the Human Respiratory Tract | |
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| The Nasal Passages | |
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| The Pharynx | |
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| The Larynx | |
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| The Evolution of Speech | |
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| Climatic Adaptations | |
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| Circulation | |
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| The Heart | |
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| The Chambered Heart | |
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| Structure and Function of the Human Heart | |
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| Evolution of Vertebrate Circulation | |
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| Circulation through Gills | |
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| Circulation through Lungs | |
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| Human Ontogeny Recapitulating Phylogeny | |
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| The Fetal Circulation Pattern | |
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| Changes at Birth | |
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| Circulation and Thermoregulation | |
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| Countercurrent Exchanges: Maintaining a Temperature Differential | |
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| Cooling the Body: Regulating Cutaneous Blood Flow | |
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| Cooling the Brain | |
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| Excretion | |
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| Evolution of the Vertebrate Kidney | |
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| The Vertebrate Nephron | |
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| Vertebrate Strategies | |
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| Kidneys of Simple Vertebrates | |
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| The Mammalian Kidney | |
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| The Concentration of Urine | |
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| Human Water Balance | |
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| The Human Strategy: Energy Flow, Homeostasis, and Endurance | |
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| Limitations on Energy Processing | |
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| Endurance Requires Energy | |
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| Energy and Oxygen Consumption | |
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| Managing Heat | |
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| The Significance of Body Size and Form | |
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| Body Form and Climate Adaptation | |
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| The Human Strategy | |
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| Reproduction | |
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| Reproduction | |
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| The Origin of Sexual Reproduction | |
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| Gametes and the Basis of Sexual Selection | |
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| Dimorphism and Secondary Sexual Characteristics | |
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| Vertebrate Reproductive Strategies | |
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| Mammalian Strategies | |
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| Menstruation | |
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| The Placenta | |
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| Labor and Delivery | |
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| Labor: A Positive Feedback Mechanism | |
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| The Anatomy of Delivery | |
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| The Evolution of Birth | |
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| Lactation and the Breast | |
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| The Composition of Milk | |
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| Breasts and the Female Figure | |
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| Breasts as Erotic Attractors | |
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| Breasts as Advertisements | |
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| Breasts as Deceitful Advertisements | |
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| The Problem of Gender Recognition | |
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| Sex and Human Evolution | |
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| Sexuality and Mating among the Apes | |
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| Two Adaptationist Models | |
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| The Pair-Bond Model | |
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| The Promiscuity Model | |
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| Contrasting the Models | |
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| Sexual Selection in the Human Species | |
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| Sexual Dimorphism in Body Size | |
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| Evidence for Sexual Selection of Men | |
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| Sexual Selection and Genital Size | |
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| Sperm Competition | |
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| Evidence for Sexual Selection among Women | |
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| Sexual Selection and Contemporary Mate Selection | |
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| Women: Choosing Status | |
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| Men: Choosing Reproductive Potential | |
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| Support for the Pair-Bond Model | |
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| Human Sexual Behavior | |
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| The Problem of Estrus | |
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| Is Ovulation Concealed? | |
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| The Pleasure of Sex | |
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| The Obscuring of Estrus: Support for the Promiscuity Model? | |
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| Human Mating Systems Are Flexible | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| The Human Strategy: Life History | |
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| The r and K Strategies | |
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| Trends | |
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| Human Life History | |
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| Stages of Life History | |
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| Fetal Life | |
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| Infancy and Nursing | |
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| Juvenile Life and Childhood | |
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| Subadults and Maturity | |
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| Postreproductive Life | |
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| Longevity and Evolution of the Modern Life Span | |
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| Dental Maturation in Early Hominins | |
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| Foraging, Energy, and Society | |
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| Glossary | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Index | |