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Framework for a Synthesis | |
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Gaps and Inconsistencies in Modern Evolutionary Thought | |
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Introduction | |
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Six Points of Confusion and Controversy | |
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The Unimodal Adaptation Concept and the Multimodal Products of Development and Plasticity | |
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The Cohesiveness Problem | |
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Proximate and Ultimate Causation | |
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The Problem of Continuous versus Discrete Variation and Change | |
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Problematic Metaphors | |
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The Genotype-Phenotype Problem | |
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Toward a Solution | |
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Material for a Synthesis | |
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Introduction | |
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Previous Insights on Development and Evolution | |
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A Unified Theory of Phenotypic Development and Evolution | |
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Definitions of Key Terms | |
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Plasticity | |
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Introduction | |
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The Meaning of Plasticity | |
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Mechanisms of Plasticity | |
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Phenotypic Accommodation | |
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The Evolutionary Importance of Mechanisms | |
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Modularity | |
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Introduction | |
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Modularity as Plasticity | |
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Hierarchy and Integration as Aspects of Modularity | |
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Application of the Modularity Concept at Different Levels of Organization | |
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Metamorphosis and Life Cycle Modularity | |
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The Genetic Architecture of Modular Traits | |
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Modular Traits as Subunits of Gene Expression | |
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Limitations of the Modularity Concept | |
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Complementarity | |
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Landmarks in the Evolution of Modularity | |
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Hypermodularity and Somatic Sequestration | |
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General Evolutionary Consequences of Increased Modularity | |
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Development | |
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Introduction | |
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Continuity of the Phenotype | |
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The Dual Nature of All Regulation | |
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Gene-Environment Equivalence and Interchangeability | |
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The Organization of Development by Switches | |
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Complementarity, Continued | |
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Consequences for Selection and Evolution | |
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Adaptive Evolution | |
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Introduction | |
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Prerequisites for Evolution by Natural Selection | |
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The Origins of Novelty | |
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Genetic Accommodation | |
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Genes as Followers in Evolution | |
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A Developmental Definition of Adaptive Evolution | |
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Principles of Development and Evolution | |
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Introduction | |
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Evolutionary Consequences of Plasticity | |
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Evolutionary Consequences of Modularity | |
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Consequences of Hierarchical Organization | |
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Consequences of Regulatory Complexity | |
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Does Plasticity Accelerate or Retard Evolution? | |
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Does Plasticity per se Evolve? | |
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Does Behavior Take the Lead in Evolution? | |
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Evolvability | |
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Developmental Plasticity as a Solution to the Cohesiveness Problem | |
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Darwin's Theory of Development and Evolution | |
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The Origins of Novelty | |
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The Nature and Analysis of Phenotypic Transitions | |
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Introduction | |
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Missing Chapters | |
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Developmental Recombination as a Complex Response to a Simple Input | |
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Important Distinctions | |
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Problems in Interpretation | |
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In Praise of Anomalies | |
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Duplication | |
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Introduction | |
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Duplication and the Rule of Independent Selection | |
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Gene Duplication | |
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Duplication in the Origin of Novel Morphologies | |
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Duplication in the Origin of Novel Behaviors | |
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Concerted Evolution and Diversification in Multigene and Multiphenotype Families | |
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Deletion | |
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Introduction | |
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Melanophore Deletion in the Midas Cichlid | |
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Deletion in the Evolution of the Arthropod Body Plan | |
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Life-Stage Deletions | |
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Deletion in the Evolution of Behavior | |
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Deletion of the Male Phenotype in Unisexual Flowers and Fishes | |
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Deletion of Intermediates | |
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What Happens to the Genes? | |
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Reversion | |
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Introduction | |
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Examples | |
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The Developmental and Genetic Basis of Atavisms and Reversions | |
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Pleiotropy and Silent Genes | |
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One-Step and Gradual Reversions | |
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Heterochrony | |
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Introduction | |
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Behavioral Heterochrony | |
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Socially Induced Heterochrony in the Evolution of Termites | |
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Life-History Heterochrony in Vertebrates | |
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Heterochrony in Plants | |
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Gradual versus One-Step Heterochrony | |
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Heterotopy | |
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Cross-Sexual Transfer | |
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Introduction | |
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The Organization and Reorganization of Sex Expression | |
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Darwin's Theory of Cross-sexual Transfer | |
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Kinds of Evidence for Cross-sexual Transfer | |
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Alternative Explanations for Sexual Monomorphism | |
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Cross-sexual Transfer in Plants | |
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Cross-sexual Transfer in Animals | |
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Female Hormones and Neurotransmitter Substances in Male Semen and Accessory Glands | |
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Alternative Reproductive Tactics | |
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Cross-sexual Transfer of Parental Care | |
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Cross-sexual Transfer of Switch Mechanisms | |
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The Social Environment as an Inducer of Cross-sexual Transfer | |
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Quantitative Shifts and Correlated Change | |
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Introduction | |
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Correlated Extremes | |
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The Two-Legged Goat Effect in Domestic and Natural Populations | |
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Trade-offs | |
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Quantum Shifts and Environmental Extremes | |
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Combinatorial Evolution at the Molecular Level | |
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Introduction | |
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Combinatorial Evolution in Regulatory Molecules | |
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Combinatorial Evolution in the Genome | |
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Phenotypic Recombination by RNA Splicing | |
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Genetic Accommodation at the Molecular Level | |
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Combinatorial Evolution and DNA Sequence Conservation | |
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Molecular Terminology and the Definitions of Evolution and the Gene | |
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Speculations | |
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Phenotypic Recombination Due to Learning | |
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Introduction | |
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Learning in Relation to Selection and Evolution | |
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Learning as a Developmental Source of Evolved Correlations | |
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The Genetic Accommodation of Learned Traits | |
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Mimicry of Natural Selection by Learning | |
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Evolved Components of Learning | |
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Learned Components of Evolved Traits | |
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Learning and Individual Differences in the Evolution of Specialization | |
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Social Competition and Learning | |
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The Importance of Forgetting | |
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Recurrence | |
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Introduction | |
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Historical Discussions of Recurrence | |
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Problems in the Interpretation of Recurrent Similarity | |
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Patterns of Recurrence | |
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Environmentally Correlated Recurrence | |
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Consequences of Recurrence for Systematics and Phylogenetics | |
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The Evolutionary Significance of Recurrence | |
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Alternative Phenotypes | |
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Alternative Phenotypes as a Phase of Evolution | |
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Introduction | |
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Terms and Distinctions | |
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Alternative Phenotypes as Models for Relating Development and Evolution | |
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Phenomena Easily Confused with Alternative Phenotypes | |
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Historical Misconceptions about Alternative Phenotypes | |
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How Alternatives Facilitate Evolution | |
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Divergence Without Speciation | |
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Introduction | |
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Specieslike Aspects of Alternatives | |
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Evidence of Postorigin Divergence | |
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Why Alternatives May Foster Divergence More Effectively Than Speciation | |
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Phenotype Fixation and Developmental Character Release | |
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Genetic Assimilation Revisited | |
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Conclusions | |
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Maintenance Without Equilibrium | |
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Introduction | |
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Matching Models to Modes of Regulation | |
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Maintenance of Conditional Alternatives | |
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Alternative Phenotypes and Maintenance of Genetic Polymorphism | |
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Conclusions | |
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Assessment | |
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Introduction | |
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Terminology | |
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Selected Examples | |
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Learning and Assessment | |
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How Complex Mechanisms of Assessment Originate and Evolve | |
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The Evolution of Assessment Involving Choice | |
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Developmental Plasticity and the Major Themes of Evolutionary Biology | |
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Gradualism | |
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Introduction | |
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Modern Permutations of the Gradualism Controversy | |
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What the Gradualism Controversy Is Not | |
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Fisher's Solution, or Why the Neo-Darwinian Resolution of the Gradualism Controversy Was Unsatisfactory | |
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Nine Modern Beliefs about Gradualism Reexamined in the Light of Developmental Plasticity | |
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Is Darwinian Gradualism Falsified by a Developmental Evolutionary Biology? | |
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Conclusions | |
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Homology | |
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Introduction | |
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Cladistic and Broad-Sense Homology | |
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The Criteria versus the Definition of Homology | |
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Iterative or "Paralogous" Homology | |
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"Mixed" Homology | |
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Levels of Analysis and the Perception of Homology | |
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Multiple Developmental Pathways and the Homology Concept | |
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Conclusions | |
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Environmental Modifications | |
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Introduction | |
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The Entrenchment of Environmental Elements in Development | |
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The Environmental Induction of Novelty | |
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The Superior Evolutionary Prospects of Environmentally Induced Traits | |
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Recurrent Extreme Environments and Phenotypic Innovation | |
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Evidence for Environmental Initiation of Reorganizational Novelty | |
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Environmental Influence and the Paleontological Time Scales of Evolutionary Change | |
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Conclusions | |
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Speciation | |
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Introduction | |
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Developmental Plasticity and Speciation: Theory | |
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Developmental Plasticity and Speciation: Kinds of Evidence | |
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Examples | |
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Speciation by Fixation of Parallel Alternative Phenotypes in the Two Sexes | |
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Plasticity and Abrupt Sympatric Speciation | |
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Other Proposed Examples of Sympatric Speciation | |
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Alternative Phenotypes and Speciation in Clines | |
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Learning, Sexual Selection, and Speciation | |
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Conclusions | |
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Adaptive Radiation | |
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Introduction | |
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Binary Radiations | |
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Multidirectional Radiations | |
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Synergism of Plasticity and Other Factors in Adaptive Radiation | |
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Grounds for Generalization | |
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Predictions | |
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Macroevolution | |
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Introduction | |
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Intraspecific Macroevolution Compared with Previous Macroevolution Concepts | |
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How Developmental Plasticity Facilitates Intraspecific Macroevolution | |
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Evidence | |
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Sexually Selected Flexibility and Macroevolutionary Trends | |
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Systema Naturae, or Why All Phyla Are Old | |
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Why Molecular Biology Cannot Solve the Macroevolution Problem | |
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Punctuation | |
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Introduction | |
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Plasticity and Punctuation | |
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Two Fossil Examples | |
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Morphological Stasis Is Not Evolutionary Stasis | |
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Conclusions | |
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One Final Word: Sex | |
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Literature Cited | |
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Author Index | |
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Taxonomic Index | |
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Subject Index | |