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| Introduction | |
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| The Nature of Epidemiologic Evidence | |
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| Goals of Epidemiologic Research | |
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| Measurement of Causal Relations Between Exposure and Disease | |
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| Inferences from Epidemiologic Research | |
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| Descriptive Goals and Causal Inference | |
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| Inferences from Epidemiologic Evidence: Efficacy of Breast Cancer Screening | |
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| Inferences from Epidemiologic Evidence: Alcohol and Spontaneous Abortion | |
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| Causal Inference | |
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| Contribution of Epidemiology to Policy Decisions | |
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| Strategy for Drawing Inferences from Epidemiologic Evidence | |
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| Need for Systematic Evaluation of Sources of Error | |
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| Need for Objective Assessment of Epidemiologic Evidence | |
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| Estimation of Measures of Effect | |
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| Conceptual Framework for the Evaluation of Error | |
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| Identify the Most Important Sources of Error | |
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| Strategies for Specifying Scenarios of Bias | |
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| Example: Epidemiologic Research on the Relation Between Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) Exposure and Breast Cancer | |
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| Selection Bias in Cohort Studies | |
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| Study Designs | |
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| Purpose of Comparison Groups | |
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| Selection Bias and Confounding | |
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| Evaluation of Selection Bias in Cohort Studies | |
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| Integrated Assessment of Potential for Selection Bias in Cohort Studies | |
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| Selection Bias in Case-Control Studies | |
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| Control Selection | |
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| Evaluation of Selection Bias in Case-Control Studies | |
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| Integrated Assessment of Potential for Selection Bias in Case-Control Studies | |
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| Bias Due to Loss of Study Participants | |
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| Conceptual Framework for Examining Bias Due to Loss of Study Participants | |
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| Evaluation of Bias Due to Loss of Study Participants | |
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| Integrated Assessment of Potential for Bias Due to Loss of Study Participants | |
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| Confounding | |
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| Definition and Theoretical Background | |
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| Quantification of Potential Confounding | |
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| Evaluation of Confounding | |
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| Integrated Assessment of Potential Confounding | |
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| Measurement and Classification of Exposure | |
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| Ideal Versus Operational Measures of Exposure | |
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| Evaluation of Exposure Misclassification | |
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| Assessment of Whether Exposure Misclassification is Differential or Nondifferential | |
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| Integrated Assessment of Potential for Bias Due to Exposure Misclassification | |
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| Measurement and Classification of Disease | |
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| Framework for Evaluating Disease Misclassification | |
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| Sources of Disease Misclassification | |
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| Differential and Nondifferential Disease Misclassification | |
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| Assessing Whether Misclassification Is Differential by Exposure | |
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| Evaluation of Disease Misclassification | |
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| Integrated Assessment of Potential for Bias Due to Disease Misclassification | |
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| Random Error | |
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| Sequential Approach to Considering Random and Systematic Error | |
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| Special Considerations in Evaluating Random Error in Observational Studies | |
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| Statistical Significance Testing | |
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| Multiple Comparisons and Related Issues | |
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| Interpretation of Confidence Intervals | |
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| Integrated Assessment of Random Error | |
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| Integration of Evidence Across Studies | |
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| Consideration of Random Error and Bias | |
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| Data Pooling and Coordinated Comparative Analysis | |
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| Synthetic and Exploratory Meta-Analysis | |
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| Interpreting Consistency and Inconsistency | |
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| Integrated Assessment from Combining Evidence Across Studies | |
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| Characterization of Conclusions | |
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| Applications of Epidemiology | |
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| Identification of Key Concerns | |
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| Integrated Consideration of Potential Bias | |
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| Integration of Epidemiologic Evidence with Other Information | |
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| Controversy over Interpretation | |
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| The Case Against Algorithms for Interpreting Epidemiologic Evidence | |
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| Index | |