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| Preface | |
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| An Introductory Overview | |
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| Ways of Knowing | |
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| Intuition and Reasoning Versus Empirical Observation: An Example | |
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| The Scientific Method | |
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| Characteristics of Scientific Observations | |
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| Rival Explanations | |
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| Defining the Terms | |
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| Replication | |
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| Internal and External Validity | |
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| Conducting a Research Study | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Ethics in Research | |
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| Guidelines for Psychologists | |
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| The Basic Ethical Dilemma | |
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| The Six General Ethical Principles | |
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| Specific Ethical Issues in Research with Humans | |
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| Risk or Freedom From Harm | |
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| Informed Consent | |
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| Debriefing | |
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| Privacy | |
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| Ethical Treatment of Animals as Research Subjects | |
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| Special Issues About the Ethics of Research | |
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| Who Decides What Is "Right?" | |
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| Ethics of Funding | |
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| Ethics and Statistics | |
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| What Becomes of What You Find? | |
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| A Final Note for New Researchers | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Variables | |
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| Variables Versus Constants: Definitions and Examples | |
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| How to Identify Variables Versus Constants | |
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| Types of Variables | |
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| Types of Relationships | |
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| No Relationship | |
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| Correlation | |
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| Causality | |
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| Necessary, Sufficient, and Contributory Causes | |
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| Simple Versus Multiple Causation | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Measuring Variables | |
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| Data-Gathering Techniques | |
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| Behavioral Observations | |
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| Self-Reports | |
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| Behavioral Ratings | |
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| Archival Records | |
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| Physical Trace Approach | |
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| Measurement | |
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| Operational Definitions: Measuring Variables | |
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| Operational Definitions: Establishing Research Conditions | |
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| Reliability and Validity | |
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| Reliability | |
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| Validity | |
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| Levels (or Scales) of Measurement | |
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| Sensitivity of Measurements | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Descriptive Statistics | |
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| Populations and Samples | |
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| About the Computations in This Text | |
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| Frequency | |
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| Graphing Frequencies | |
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| Grouped Frequencies | |
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| Probability | |
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| Central Tendency | |
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| Mode | |
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| Median | |
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| Mean | |
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| Means Versus Medians: The Case of Outliers | |
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| Distributions of Scores | |
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| The Normal Distribution | |
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| Skewed Distributions | |
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| Variability | |
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| Variance and Standard Deviation | |
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| Median Absolute Deviation | |
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| Standard Deviations Versus the Median Absolute Deviation: The Case of Outliers | |
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| Range | |
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| Number of Categories/Values | |
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| The Variation Ratio | |
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| Selecting Appropriate Descriptive Statistics | |
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| Simple Data Transformations | |
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| z-Scores | |
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| z-Scores as Inferential Statistics: Areas Under the Normal Curve | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Hypothesis Testing | |
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| Representativeness and Sampling Procedures | |
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| Random Sampling | |
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| Stratified Random Sampling | |
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| Available Samples and Convenience Sampling | |
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| Statistical Hypotheses | |
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| The Null Hypotheses (H[subscript 0]) | |
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| Research or Alternate Hypothesis (H[subscript 1]) | |
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| Sampling Distributions | |
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| The Shape of the Sampling Distribution | |
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| The Average of the Sampling Distribution | |
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| Variability of Sampling Distributions | |
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| Probabilities of Samples | |
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| Making the Decision | |
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| Significance Levels ([alpha]) | |
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| Critical Values | |
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| Tables of Critical Values | |
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| Have We Made the Correct Decision? | |
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| Threats to the Validity of Hypothesis-Testing: Pitfalls to Avoid | |
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| Statistical Versus Practical and Psychological Significance | |
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| The Relevant Error Rate and "Accepting" The Null Hypothesis | |
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| The Arbitrary Cut-off Point Between "Rare" and "Common" Events | |
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| Proposed Alternatives to the Null-Hypothesis-Testing Procedure | |
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| A Call for Compromise: Using a Combination of Approaches | |
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| Exercises | |
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| General Research Methods | |
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| The Experimental Method | |
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| The Logic of Experiments | |
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| An Overview of the Experimental Method | |
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| An Alternative to Random Assignment: Repeated Measures | |
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| Research Settings for Experiments: Laboratory Versus Field Experiments | |
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| Quasi-Experimental Research Methods | |
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| Non-Equivalent Groups Designs | |
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| Time-Series Designs | |
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| Two Approaches to Analyzing the Results | |
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| Summary of Quasi-Experimental Methods | |
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| Correlational Methods | |
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| Naturalistic Observation | |
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| Summary of the Correlational Method | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Correlation Coefficients | |
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| Magnitude | |
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| Direction | |
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| Graphing the Relationship Between Two Variables | |
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| Selecting the Appropriate Correlation Coefficient | |
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| Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient | |
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| The Pearson r as an Inferential Statistic: Testing the Null Hypothesis | |
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| Spearman Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient | |
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| The Spearman r as an Inferential Statistic: Testing the Null Hypothesis | |
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| Tied Ranking Procedure | |
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| Correlating Nominal Data | |
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| Phi Coefficient | |
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| Testing the Difference Between Two Correlations | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Introduction to Regression Analysis | |
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| The Logic Behind Simple Regression Analysis | |
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| The Regression Equation | |
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| About the Regression Equation | |
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| Assumptions and Limitations of the Least-Squares Method of Regression | |
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| Linearity | |
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| Normal Distributions and Homoscedasticity | |
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| Evaluating Y': How Accurate Are Our Predictions? | |
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| A Short-Cut for Computing the Standard Error of the Estimate | |
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| z-Scores and Regression Analysis | |
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| Coefficient of Determination | |
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| Using Venn Diagrams to Illustrate r[superscript 2] | |
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| The Basic Concepts of Multiple Regression | |
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| Using Venn Diagrams to Illustrate Multiple Regression and R[superscript 2] | |
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| Multicollinearity | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Designing Experiments and Quasi-Experiments | |
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| One-way Designs | |
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| Factorial Designs and the Concept of Interaction: "It Depends" | |
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| Multiple Determinants (or Predictors) of Behavior | |
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| Contingencies Among Determinants: The Essence of Interaction | |
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| Terminology and Notation Systems for Factorial Designs | |
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| Factorial Designs and Confounds | |
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| The Research Questions Addressed in Factorial Designs | |
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| Selecting Only the Necessary Independent Variables | |
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| Selecting the Necessary Levels of the Independent Variables | |
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| No-Treatment Control Group | |
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| Placebo Control Groups | |
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| Research Designs | |
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| Comparisons Between Groups Versus Repeated Measures | |
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| Testing Participants Repeatedly in Within-Subjects Designs | |
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| Advantages of Within-Subjects Designs | |
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| Disadvantages of Within-Subjects Designs | |
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| Counterbalancing | |
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| Summary of Within-Subjects Designs | |
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| Advantages and Disadvantages of Between-Subjects Designs | |
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| Matching Designs | |
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| Some General Confounds: Threats to Internal Validity | |
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| Maturation | |
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| History | |
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| Regression Toward the Mean | |
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| Instrumentation | |
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| Mortality | |
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| Sensitization | |
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| Pretest-Posttest Designs: The Need for a Control Group | |
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| Selecting Within-Subjects Factors for Mixed Designs | |
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| The Special Case of Age as an Independent Variable | |
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| Steps in Designing an Experiment or Quasi-Experiment | |
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| Exercises | |
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| The z-Test and t-Test: Analyzing Data from One-and Two-Group Designs | |
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| The z-Test: When the Population Standard Deviation ([sigma]) Is Known | |
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| z-Test: Application 1: When the Population Mean ([mu]) Is Known | |
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| z-Test Application 2: When the Population Mean ([mu]) Is Being Tested | |
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| Requirements for the z-Test | |
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| The t-Test: When the Population Standard Deviation ([sigma]) Is Unknown | |
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| One-Sample t-Test | |
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| Two-Sample t-Test: Independent Samples From a Between-Subjects Design | |
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| Two-Sample t-Test: Related Samples From a Within-Subjects or Matching Design | |
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| The Limited Applicability of z- and t-Tests | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Analysis of Variance | |
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| Sources of Variation | |
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| Between-Subjects Designs | |
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| Within-Subjects Designs | |
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| Factorial Designs | |
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| Mixed Designs | |
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| Computing Sums of Squares | |
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| One-way BS-ANOVA | |
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| Two-way BS-ANOVA | |
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| One-way RM-ANOVA | |
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| Degrees of Freedom | |
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| Mean Squares | |
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| The F-Ratio | |
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| Testing the Significance of F | |
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| Post Hoc Analyses | |
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| Dunn's Multiple Comparisons Procedure | |
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| Example of a One-way BS-ANOVA | |
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| Example of a 2 [times] 3 (Two-way) BS-ANOVA | |
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| Example of a One-way RM-ANOVA | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Nonparametric Tests for Experiments and Quasi-Experiments | |
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| Nominal Scales | |
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| Between-Subjects Designs: Chi-Square (X[superscript 2]) | |
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| Within-Subjects Designs: Cochran's Q | |
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| Ordinal Scales | |
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| Between-Subjects Designs: The Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test and the Kruskal-Wallis H | |
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| Within-Subjects Designs: Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test (a.k.a. the Wilcoxon W) | |
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| A Cautionary Note about When to Select the Appropriate Statistic | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Estimation and Confidence Intervals | |
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| Confidence Intervals for the Mean | |
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| Finding the Margin of Error: The Maximum Error of the Estimate | |
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| Confidence Interval: The Range of Likely Values of the Population Mean | |
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| Summary: Steps in Computing the Confidence Interval for the Mean | |
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| Confidence Intervals for Proportions (or Percentages) | |
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| Numerical Examples of Confidence Intervals for Proportions (or Percentages) | |
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| Limitations of Confidence Intervals for Proportions (or Percentages) | |
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| Confidence Intervals for Pearson Correlations | |
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| Numerical Example of Confidence Intervals for the Pearson Correlation | |
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| Minimum Differences Between Treatment Means | |
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| Minimum Differences in Two-Group Between-Subjects Designs | |
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| Minimum Differences in Two-Treatment Related-Samples Designs | |
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| Confidence Intervals Versus Significance Testing | |
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| Numerical Example of Confidence Intervals That Do Not Overlap | |
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| Numerical Example of Confidence Intervals That Overlap | |
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| Confidence Intervals and Statistical Power | |
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| Renewing the Call for Compromise: Combining the Approaches | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Single-Subject Research Design | |
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| Key Elements of Single-Subject Research | |
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| Elements of Measurement | |
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| Design Phases in Single-Subject Research Designs | |
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| Presentation of Data | |
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| Threats to the Validity of Data from Single-Subject Designs | |
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| Specific Research Designs | |
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| ABAB Designs | |
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| Multiple-Baseline Designs | |
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| The Changing Criterion Design | |
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| Alternating Treatment Designs | |
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| Mixed Designs | |
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| Single-Subject Designs for Applied and Basic Research Questions | |
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| Evaluation of Data from Single-Subject Designs | |
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| Visual Inspection | |
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| Interpreting the Data from Single-Subject Research | |
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| Potential Confounds and Problems in the Visual Interpretation of Data | |
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| Resources for Further Study | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Qualitative Research Methods and Analysis | |
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| Qualitative Methods for Gathering Data | |
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| Observation | |
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| Interviews | |
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| Textual Analysis | |
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| Transcription | |
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| Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research | |
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| Triangulation of Methods: Increasing the Validity | |
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| A Case Study Illustrating Triangulation of Qualitative Research Methods | |
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| Statistics for Qualitative Methods | |
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| The Future of Qualitative Methods | |
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| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Appendix A | |
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| Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Preamble | |
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| General Principles | |
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| Competence | |
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| Integrity | |
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| Professional and Scientific Responsibility | |
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| Respect for People's Rights and Dignity | |
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| Concern for Others' Welfare | |
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| Social Responsibility | |
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| Ethical Standards | |
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| General Standards | |
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| Evaluation, Assessment, or Intervention | |
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| Advertising and Other Public Statements | |
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| Therapy | |
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| Privacy and Confidentiality | |
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| Teaching, Training Supervision, Research, and Publishing | |
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| Forensic Activities | |
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| Resolving Ethical Issues | |
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| Appendix B | |
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| Statistical Tables | |
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| Appendix C | |
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| Introduction to Statistical Power | |
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| Two Variances | |
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| Using the Two Variances to Test the Null Hypothesis | |
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| Statistical Power | |
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| Maximizing the Power in a Study | |
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| Adequate Sample Size | |
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| Lower Significance ([alpha]) Levels | |
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| Selecting Designs with More Inherent Power | |
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| Power Analysis | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Appendix D | |
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| Reporting the Research | |
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| Methods of Dissemination | |
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| Presentations at Professional Meetings | |
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| Written Reports | |
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| Electronic Dissemination | |
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| General Writing Style | |
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| Some Specific Issues and Common Errors | |
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| Re-writing | |
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| Plagiarism | |
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| APA Format and Manuscript Preparation | |
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| Sections of an APA-Format Research Report | |
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| Examples of References Using the APA Format | |
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| Manuscript Headings | |
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| Sample Manuscripts | |
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| Appendix E | |
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| Answers for the Odd-Numbered Exercises | |
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| Appendix F | |
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| References | |
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| Glossary | |
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| Index | |