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| Preface | |
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| Acknowledgments | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Women in Pre-history and The Ancient Near East | |
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| Paleolithic,Neolithic, and Proto-Historic Cultures | |
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| Paleolithic Old Europe | |
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| Social Organization | |
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| Subsistence | |
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| Technology | |
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| Religion | |
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| The Holy | |
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| Symbol System | |
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| Myth and Ritual | |
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| Religious Functionaries | |
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| Neolithic Old Europe | |
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| Religion | |
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| The Holy | |
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| Ritual | |
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| Religious Functionaries | |
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| Myth | |
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| Symbol Systems | |
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| Social Organization | |
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| Subsistence | |
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| Neolithic Anatolia | |
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| Religion | |
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| The Holy | |
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| Myth | |
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| Ritual | |
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| Religious Functionaries | |
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| Social Organization | |
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| Subsistence | |
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| Technology | |
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| The Proto-Historic Period | |
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| Scenario One | |
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| Scenario Two | |
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| Suggested Readings | |
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| Ancient Near Eastern Mesopotamia: The Religious Context | |
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| Religion | |
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| The Holy/Myth | |
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| The Sacred Marriage of Inanna and Damuzi | |
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| Pudu-heppas' Prayer to Arinna the Sun Goddess | |
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| Religious Functionaries | |
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| En, Entu: High Priestess | |
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| The High Priestess Enheduanna's Hymn to Inanna | |
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| Contexts of Correspondence from Mari | |
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| The Ugbabatum Priestess | |
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| Zimri-Lim to Kibri-Dagan Re: Ugbabatum Priestess of Dagan | |
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| Zimri-Lim to Queen Sibtu Re: Ugbabatum Priestess of Dagan | |
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| The Naditu | |
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| Love Song to a King | |
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| Harris' Description of Naditus | |
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| Excerpt 2 | |
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| Eristi-Aya, a Daughter of Zimri-Lim, Letter Excerpts | |
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| Two Letters from Lamassi | |
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| Female Scribes and Entrepreneurs | |
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| Amat Samas, Scribe | |
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| Hussutum, the Daughter of Sin-putram | |
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| Iltani the Princess, Excerpts | |
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| Inanna-amamu, Scribe, Daughter of Abba-tabum, Excerpts | |
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| Female Prophets | |
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| Oracles | |
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| Suggested Readings | |
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| Ancient Near Eastern Mesopotamia: The Social Context | |
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| Social Organization | |
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| Cosmology Shapes Culture | |
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| The Enuma Elish: The Babylonian Genesis | |
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| Women in the Aristocracy | |
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| Women of the Royal Household | |
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| Queen Adad-Guppi, A Burial Inscription | |
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| Correspondences: Personal and Political | |
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| Queen Sibtu of Mari, Correspondence Excerpts | |
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| Politically Prominent Concubines of Zimri-Lim, Letter Excerpts | |
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| A Political Marriage | |
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| Legal Status of Women | |
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| Legal Codes | |
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| Law Codes from Lipit Ishtar 3000-2500 B.C.E. | |
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| Lipit-Ishtar Law Code 3000-2500 B.C.E. | |
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| Ur-Nammu Law Code 2000's B.C.E. | |
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| Eshnunna Law Code 2000's B.C.E. | |
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| Hittite Law Codes ca. 1800 B.C.E. | |
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| Law Code of Hammurabi 1700s B.C.E. | |
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| Women Outside the Nobility | |
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| Female Scribes | |
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| Female Merchants and Artisans | |
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| Female Serfs | |
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| Female Slaves | |
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| Suggested Readings | |
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| Ancient Egypt | |
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| Social Organization | |
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| Religion | |
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| The Holy/Myth: Female Principle of the Divine | |
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| Ma'at, Cosmic Female Principle ofWisdom and Judgment of the Dead | |
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| The Goddess Isis Discovers Re's Unknown Name of Power | |
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| The Holy/Ritual | |
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| Hymn to Hathor | |
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| Female Religious Functionaries | |
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| First Prophet of Amun | |
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| Stele of Nitocris at Medinet Habu | |
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| Women in the Aristocracy | |
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| Female Kings of Egypt | |
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| Meryt-Neith | |
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| Nitocris | |
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| Sobeknofu | |
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| Hatshepsut | |
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| Obelisk Inscriptions of Queen Hatshepsut in the Temple of Karnak | |
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| Nefertiti | |
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| Twosret | |
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| Female Queens of Egypt | |
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| Queen Ankhesenamun of Egypt and King Suppiluliumas | |
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| Queen Tiye | |
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| A Proclamation by Amenhotep III | |
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| Women Outside the Nobility | |
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| Legal Status of Women | |
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| Women's Occupations | |
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| Education | |
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| Wisdom Literature | |
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| The Instruction of Ani from the Reign of Queen Nefertari | |
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| Egyptian Secular Love Poetry | |
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| Poems from Papyrus Harris 500 11 | |
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| Suggested Readings | |
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| Ancient Israel | |
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| Social Organization | |
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| Women of the Patriarchs | |
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| Sarah and Hagar,Mothers of Two Nations | |
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| Women in the Aristocracy | |
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| Queens, Princesses, Queen Mothers | |
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| Bathsheba,Wife of King David,Mother of King Solomon | |
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| Tamar, David's Daughter, Raped by Her Brother Amnon | |
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| Queen of Sheba and Solomon: Mutual Admiration | |
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| Jezebel, a Despised Foreign Queen of Israel; Devotee of Ba'al and Asherah | |
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| Religion | |
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| The Holy | |
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| The Female Principle of Divine Wisdom Was Present at Creation | |
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| Images of the Female at Creation: Genesis 1 and Genesis 2 | |
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| Israelites Bake Breads for the Queen of Heaven | |
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| The Holy/Ritual | |
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| Queen Esther and the Feast of Purim | |
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| Female Religious Functionaries | |
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| Miriam | |
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| The Prophet Miriam at the Sea of Reeds | |
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| Miriam: Administrator of Law at Kadesh | |
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| Deborah | |
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| Deborah: Prophet, Judge, and Warrior in Israel | |
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| Huldah, Court Prophet to King Josiah | |
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| Women Outside the Nobility | |
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| An Unnamed Woman is Sexually Abused in the Name of Hospitality | |
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| The Beloved Lover in the Song of Songs | |
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| Suggested Readings | |
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| Women in The Mediterranean and The Greco-Roman World | |
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| Women at Crete and Greek Women beyond Athens | |
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| Brief Overview of Archaeological Excavations at Crete | |
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| Social Organization | |
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| Subsistence | |
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| Technology | |
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| Architecture | |
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| Nature | |
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| Maritime Motif | |
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| Protection Motif | |
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| Religion | |
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| The Holy | |
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| Myth | |
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| Ritual | |
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| Symbol Systems | |
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| Female Functionaries | |
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| Greek Women's Experience Beyond Athens | |
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| Sparta | |
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| Regulations of Lycurgus Concerning Spartan Women | |
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| Xenephon on the Education of Spartan Women | |
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| Plutarch on the Pride and Assurance of Spartan Women | |
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| Aristotle on Women at Sparta | |
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| Lesbos | |
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| Sappho | |
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| Selections from Sappho's Poems | |
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| Telos | |
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| Selections from Erinna's Poems | |
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| Two Epigrams for Baucis | |
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| Crotona (Italy) | |
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| Early Female Pythagoreans | |
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| Theano of Crotona, Excerpts | |
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| On the Immortality of the Soul | |
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| Advice to Women | |
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| Myia, Daughter of Theano and Pythagoras | |
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| Myia's Letter to Phyllis | |
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| Female Heroes | |
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| Telesilla | |
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| Artemisia | |
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| Suggested Readings | |
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| Athens | |
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| Social Organization | |
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| Eumenides | |
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| Wives, Daughters,Mothers of Citizens | |
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| Aristotle, Excerpts from Politics | |
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| Women Represented in Greek Tragedy and Comedy | |
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| Euripedes,Medea,Medea's Assessment of Husbands | |
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| Legal Status of Women | |
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| Isaeus, On Property Laws for Women and Children | |
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| Inheritance Laws for Athenian Women | |
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| Provisions for Female Children | |
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| Religion | |
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| The Holy | |
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| Homeric Hymn to Demeter | |
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| Ritual | |
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| Callimachus, Thesmophoria Hymn 6 | |
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| Female Functionaries | |
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| Thucydides, Chrysis, Priestess of Hera | |
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| The Religious Duties of Aristocratic Young Girls | |
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| Women Outside the Aristocracy | |
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| Hetairae | |
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| Aspasia of Miletus | |
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| Plutarch on Aspasia | |
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| Menexenus | |
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| Plato's Female Pupils | |
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| Women at Work | |
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| Occupations | |
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| Suggested Readings | |
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| Etruria and The Roman Republic | |
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| Etruria | |
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| Social Organization | |
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| Women in the Aristocracy | |
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| The Textual Evidence | |
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| Queen Tanaquil: Kingmaker | |
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| Archaeological Evidence | |
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| Queen Larthia and the Regolini-Galassi Tomb | |
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| Ramtha, Immortalized on the Banquet of Eternity" Sarcophagus | |
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| Religion | |
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| The Holy | |
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| Myth | |
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| Ritual | |
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| Female Religious Functionaries | |
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| Vigoia, Etruscan Prophetess | |
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| Women Outside the Aristocracy | |
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| The Roman Republic | |
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| Social Organization | |
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| Patrician Women | |
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| Men Writing about Patrician Women | |
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| Livy's Account of Lucretia | |
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| Valerius Maximus Praises Three Virtuous Women | |
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| Legal Status of Women | |
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| The Laws of the Kings, Rome | |
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| Laws Attributed to Romulus | |
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| Laws attributed to Numa Pompilius | |
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| Excerpts from "The Twelve Tables" | |
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| Husbands' Punishment of Wives in Early Rome | |
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| The Roman Jurists | |
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| Religion | |
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| The Holy | |
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| Myth | |
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| Rituals | |
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| Female Religious Functionaries | |
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| Aulus Gellius' Account of the Vestal Virgins | |
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| Plutarch on Numa Pompilius and the Vestal Virgins | |
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| Plebian Women | |
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| Should We Organize? | |
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| The Rape of the Sabine Women | |
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| Suggested Readings | |
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| The Hellenistic World | |
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| Social Organization | |
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| Women in the Aristocracy | |
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| Olympias | |
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| Olympias, Queen of Macedonia | |
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| Olympias' Tears | |
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| The Aged Olympias Rides into Battle | |
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| Hellenistic Queens: Ptolemaic Egypt | |
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| Arsinoe II Philadelphus | |
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| Cleopatra VII | |
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| A Sympathetic Portrait of Cleopatra VII | |
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| Education | |
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| Education for Women | |
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| Women Outside the Aristocracy | |
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| Female Philosophers | |
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| Hipparchia the Cynic | |
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| Female Pythagoreans | |
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| "On Human Nature" | |
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| Late Pythagoreans | |
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| Perictione I: On the Harmony ofWomen | |
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| Letter from Theano II to Rhodope | |
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| Perictione II: Sophias (Wisdom) | |
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| Female Physicians | |
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| Female Poets | |
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| Anyte: Epigrams | |
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| Miletus | |
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| Thersis | |
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| Nossis: Epigrams | |
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| To Hera | |
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| To Thaumarete | |
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| Musicians and Painters | |
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| Women Painters | |
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| Polygnota, the Harpist | |
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| Occupations | |
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| Eirene, Agricultural Entrepreneur | |
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| Religion | |
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| Mystery Religions | |
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| The Holy/Myth | |
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| Isis and Osiris | |
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| Suggested Readings | |
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| Women in Hellenistic Judaism | |
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| Social Organization | |
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| Women In The Aristocracy | |
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| Salome Alexandra | |
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| Salome Alexandra Portrayed by Josephus | |
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| Education | |
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| Influence Among Hellenistic Jews | |
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| Jewish Women and Education in the Hellenistic Period | |
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| "The Rule Annex," IQSA | |
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| Mishnaic Tractates | |
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| Legal Status of Women | |
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| Mishnaic Tractates Concerning Marriage and Women's Inheritance | |
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| Ketubot | |
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| Religion | |
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| The Holy | |
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| Sophia in the Wisdom of Solomon | |
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| Sophia in Sirach | |
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| The Holy/Myth | |
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| Judith's Victory Ode | |
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| The Holy Ritual | |
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| Jewish Maidens Re-enact Seila's Pilgrimage | |
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| Female Theraputae Celebrate in Hymns and Dances | |
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| Venerable Female Essenes are Honored and Esteemed | |
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| Female Religious Functionaries | |
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| Female Leaders Featured in Texts | |
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| The Sages Recognize Seila's Wisdom | |
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| Women Outside the Aristocracy | |
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| Jewish Women in Alexandrian Public Life | |
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| Philo on the Special Laws | |
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| Female Entrepreneurs | |
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| Female Entrepreneurs at Elephantine | |
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| Suggested Readings | |
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| The Roman Empire, Christian Origins, Late Antiquity, and The Middle Ages | |
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| The Roman Empire | |
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| Social Organization | |
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| Octavian Becomes Caesar Augustus | |
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| Social Organization at the Beginning of the Roman Empire | |
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| Women in the Aristocracy | |
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| Livia, Empress of Augustus | |
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| Octavian's Generosity to Livia | |
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| Tiberius's Resentment of Livia | |
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| Livia's Legacy Is Influenced by Tiberius | |
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| Julia, Daughter of Augustus | |
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| Julia's Wit | |
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| Caenis, Concubine of the Emperor Vespasian | |
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| Noble Roman Women Outside of Rome | |
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| |
| Flavia Publica Nicomachus, Phocaea, Asia Minor, Second Century C.E. | |
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| Modia Quintia, Africa Proconsularis, Second-Third Centuries C.E. | |
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| Aurelia Leite, Female Benefactor, Paros, 300 C.E. | |
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| Pamphile, a Learned Woman, First Century, C.E. | |
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| Legal Status of Women | |
| |
| |
| Laws in the Roman Empire, 30 B.C.E.-250 C.E. | |
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| Gaius on the Guardianship ofWomen | |
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| A Law Requiring Men to Marry | |
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| |
| Rewards for Marrying and Producing Children | |
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| The Consequences of Adultery | |
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| |
| Lolliane,Mother of Three, Requests Legal Autonomy | |
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| |
| Religion | |
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| |
| The Holy | |
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| |
| The Transformation of Lucius | |
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| |
| Myth/Ritual | |
| |
| |
| Rituals of Initiation | |
| |
| |
| Ovid on the Worship of the Goddess Vesta | |
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| |
| Female Functionaries | |
| |
| |
| Women Outside the Nobility | |
| |
| |
| Musonius Rufus On the Education ofWomen | |
| |
| |
| Women's Occupations | |
| |
| |
| Plebian Women and Freedwomen | |
| |
| |
| Apollonia, a Philosopher from Mysia | |
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| |
| A Female Commentator on Religious Ritual, Delphi | |
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| Phile, Female Magistrate and Civic Benefactor, Priene | |
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| |
| Amemone, a Bar-maid | |
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| |
| An Actress from the Theatre at Aquileia | |
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| To Bassilla, an Actress | |
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| |
| Women Who Practiced Medicine | |
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| Primilla, a Physician at Rome | |
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| |
| Women in the Service or the Imperial Household | |
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| |
| |
| Christian Origins | |
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| The Women Around Jesus | |
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| Prophetic Gesture: A Woman Who Anointed Jesus' Head | |
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| Woman Who Anointed Jesus' Head | |
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| |
| Mary of Magdala | |
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| Mary Magdalene Among Women Who Provided for Jesus | |
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| The Magdalene at the Resurrection in Luke's Gospel | |
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| Mary Magdalene in John's Passion Narrative | |
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| Gospel of Phillip Presents Mary Magdalene as Jesus' Companion | |
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| |
| Gospel of Mary | |
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| Martha | |
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| Joanna | |
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| Female Prophets | |
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| Anna the Prophet | |
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| Four Sisters Are Prophets | |
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| |
| Women in the Apostolic Church | |
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| |
| Teachers | |
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| |
| Priscilla and Aquila | |
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| |
| Female Missionaries and Leaders at Rome | |
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| |
| Phoebe: Deacon and Prostasis at Cenchreae | |
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| Prisca: Missionary, Leader of a Church, Teacher | |
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| Mary: A Worker in the Church at Rome | |
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| Junia, Apostle | |
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| Tryphena and Tryphosa,Workers in the Lord | |
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| |
| The Mother of Rufus: a Mother to Paul | |
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| |
| Julia: Sister of Nereus; Olympas: Saints in the Church at Rome | |
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| |
| Women in the Post-Apostolic Church | |
| |
| |
| Female Priests Among Thracians | |
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| |
| Arabian Christian Women of Thracian Descent Who Bake Cakes to the Virgin Mary and Function as Priests | |
| |
| |
| A Montanist Visionary Submits Her Revelation to Careful Scrutiny | |
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| |
| The Montanists Prophets Maximilla and Priscilla | |
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| |
| Women Bishops, Presbyters, and Prophets among the Followers of Quintilla and Priscilla | |
| |
| |
| Images of the Female Principle of the Divine in Early Christian Gnostic Communities | |
| |
| |
| "The Thunder, Perfect Mind" | |
| |
| |
| Female Heroes in Second and Third Century Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles | |
| |
| |
| The Acts of Thecla | |
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| Perpetua's Account of Her Persecution | |
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| Suggested Readings | |
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| Late Antiquity | |
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| Roman Women | |
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| Ummidia Quadratilla | |
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| Ummidia and Her Grandson | |
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| Asclepiginia of Athens | |
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| Asclepigenia's Influence | |
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| Jewish Women | |
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| Queen Helena of Adiabene | |
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| Queen Helena | |
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| Babata, a Wealthy Female Entrepreneur | |
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| Excerpts from the Babata Archives | |
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| Female Leaders in Synagogues | |
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| Heads of Synagogues: Sophia and Theopempte | |
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| Priests: Maria and Guadentia | |
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| Donors to Synagogues: Alexandra, Eupithis, and Halipho | |
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| Rabbinic Judaism | |
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| Beruriah | |
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| Byzantine Women | |
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| Helen,Mother of Constantine | |
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| Hypatia of Alexandria | |
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| The Murder of Hypatia | |
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| Empress Theodora | |
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| Christian Women in Late Antiquity: East and West | |
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| Origins of Female Monasticism in the East | |
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| Saint Macrina, Founder, Abbess, Teacher | |
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| Desert Mothers | |
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| Amma Sarah Instructs Holy Men | |
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| Amma Syncletica Teaches Perseverance and Humility | |
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| Female Deacons and the Order of Widows | |
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| "Regulations for Deaconesses" | |
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| "Regulations for Christian Widows" | |
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| Origins of Monasticism in the West | |
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| Jerome Praises Marcella and Her "Circle" of Holy Women | |
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| Egeria's Account of Her Pilgrimage to Jerusalem | |
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| The Celts | |
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| Women Warriors | |
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| "Rhiannon, the Horse Goddess" | |
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| "Maedb,Woman Warrior" | |
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| Celtic Christian Saints | |
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| "St. Non" | |
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| "St.Melangell" | |
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| Suggested Readings | |
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| Medieval Culture: The Religious Context | |
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| Monastic life and Female Creativity | |
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| Radegund of Poitiers (520-587) | |
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| The Fall of Thuringia | |
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| Hrotswitha of Gandersheim (ca. 935-1001) | |
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| Dulcitius or The Martyrdom of the Holy Virgins Agape, Chione, and Irene | |
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| Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179) | |
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| Hildegard to Pope Anastasius, 1153-54 | |
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| Excerpts from Causae et curae | |
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| Songs from Symphony of the Harmony of Celestial Revelations | |
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| "Vision Nine: 15 Wisdom and her appearance" from Scivias | |
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| Manuscript Illuminations | |
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| Varieties of Female Piety | |
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| Mechthild of Magdeburg (ca. 1210-ca. 1282):Mystic and Beguine | |
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| The Flowing Light of the Godhead | |
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| Marguerite Porete (12??-1310):Mystic and Beguine | |
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| Mirror of Simple Souls | |
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| Julian of Norwich (b. 1343?):Mystic and Anchorite | |
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| The Revelations of Divine Love | |
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| Medieval Images of Women: The Eva/Ave Dualism | |
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| Malleus Maleficarum or The Hammer ofWitches, 1486: Eva Imagery | |
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| "Why Superstition is chiefly found in Women" from Malleus Maleficarum | |
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| Ave Imagery:Mariology or the Cult of the Blessed Virgin Mary | |
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| Suggested Readings | |
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| Medieval Culture: The Secular Context | |
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| The Women Troubadours (Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries) | |
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| Castelloza (born ca. 1200) | |
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| "Chanson II" | |
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| La Comtessa de Dia (b. ca. 1140) | |
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| "Estat ai en greu cossirier" | |
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| Bieris De Romans | |
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| "Chanson to Maria" | |
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| Women Artists, Artisans, and Patrons | |
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| The Art of Embroidery | |
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| Skilled Textile Workers and Guilds | |
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| Ordinances Regulating the Paris Silk Workers' Guild, 1254-71 | |
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| London Silk Women's Petition to Parliament, 1455 | |
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| Manuscript Illuminations | |
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| Anastasia | |
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| Women Book Owners as Patrons | |
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| Two Major Writers of the Middle Ages | |
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| Marie de France (Twelfth Century): Poet and Social Critic | |
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| Selections from Marie's Fables | |
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| Christine de Pizan (1365-ca. 1430-34): Voice for Women and France | |
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| Pizan's Defense ofWomen: The Book of the City of Ladies 1405 | |
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| Treasure of the City of Ladies | |
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| Pizan's Lament on the Evils of the Civil War, 1410 | |
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| Suggested Readings | |
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| Bibliography | |