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Motivation: Introduction and Historical Foundations | |
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Motivation Defined | |
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Relation of Motivation to Learning and Performance | |
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Motivation Theory and Research | |
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Theory and the Study of Motivation | |
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Motivation Research Paradigms | |
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Assessing Motivation | |
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Indexes of Motivation | |
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Methods of Assessment | |
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Historical Theories of Motivation | |
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Volition/Will | |
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Instincts | |
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Freud's Theory | |
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Behavior Theories | |
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Drive Theories | |
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Purposive Behaviorism | |
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Arousal Theories | |
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Cognitive Consistency | |
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Functional Autonomy of Motives | |
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Humanistic Theories | |
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Contemporary Perspectives on Motivation | |
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Common Themes in Current Theories | |
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Neuroscience of Motivation | |
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Summary | |
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Further Reading | |
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Expectancy-Value Theory | |
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Historical Perspectives | |
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Lewin's Level of Aspiration | |
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Atkinson's Achievement Motivation | |
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Contemporary Expectancy-Value Theory | |
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Theoretical Framework | |
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Expectancy Beliefs | |
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Value Beliefs | |
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Developmental Differences in Expectancies and Values | |
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Level and Accuracy of Self-Perceptions of Competence | |
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Developmental Changes in Values | |
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Group Differences in Expectancies and Values | |
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Gender Differences in Expectancies | |
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Ethnic Differences in Expectancies | |
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Gender and Ethnic Differences in Values | |
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Summary | |
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Further Reading | |
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Attribution Theory | |
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Overview of Attribution Theory | |
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Antecedents of Attributions | |
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Environmental Factors | |
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Personal Factors | |
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Consequences of Attributions | |
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Conditions That Foster Spontaneous Attributional Search | |
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Content of Attributional Thinking | |
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Motivational Dimensions of Attributions | |
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Linkage of Attributions to Expectancy Beliefs | |
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Linkage of Attributions to Emotions | |
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Responsibility Judgments | |
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Developmental and Group Differences in Attributions | |
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Developmental Differences | |
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Gender and Ethnic Differences | |
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Attribution Retraining | |
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Summary | |
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Further Reading | |
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Social Cognitive Theory | |
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Historical Influences | |
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Theories of Imitation | |
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Social Learning Theory | |
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Theoretical Framework | |
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Reciprocal Interactions | |
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Learning and Motivation | |
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Enactive and Vicarious Learning | |
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Modeling and Vicarious Processes | |
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Functions of Modeling | |
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Characteristics of Effective Models | |
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Functions of Modeled Consequences | |
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Reciprocal Teaching | |
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Tutoring and Mentoring | |
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Motivational Processes | |
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Outcome Expectations | |
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Goals | |
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Values | |
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Self-Efficacy | |
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Motivated Learning | |
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Social Comparison | |
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Festinger's Theory | |
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Development of Social Comparison | |
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Motivation and Achievement | |
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Self-Regulation and Volition | |
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Self-Regulation | |
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Volition | |
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Group Motivation | |
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Conformity and Compliance | |
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Collaborative Learning | |
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Collective Self-Efficacy | |
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Summary | |
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Further Reading | |
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Goals and Goal Orientations | |
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Historical Perspectives on Needs and Goals | |
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Murray's Taxonomy of Needs | |
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs | |
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Critique | |
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Current Cognitive Perspectives on Goals | |
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Social Cognitive Theory | |
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Information Processing Theory | |
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Motivational Systems Theory | |
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Goal Processes | |
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Social Goal Theory | |
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Self-Theories | |
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Goal-Orientation Theories | |
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Conceptual Overview | |
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Mastery and Performance Goal Orientations | |
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Motivational and Cognitive Outcomes | |
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Personal and Contextual Predictors | |
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Summary | |
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Further Reading | |
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Interest and Affect | |
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Historical Foundations | |
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Personal and Situational Interest | |
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Perspectives on Interest | |
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Measures of Interest and Research Findings | |
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Developmental and Individual Differences | |
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Self-Worth Theory | |
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Overview | |
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Conceptual Model | |
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Emotions and Educational Outcomes | |
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Taxonomy of Emotions | |
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Effects of Emotions on Learning and Motivation | |
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Emotions and Goals | |
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Test Anxiety | |
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Defining Test Anxiety | |
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Effects on Learning and Performance | |
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Interventions | |
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Summary | |
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Further Reading | |
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Intrinsic Motivation | |
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Characteristics of Intrinsic Motivation | |
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Early Views of Intrinsic Motivation | |
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Effectance Motivation | |
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Arousal and Incongruity | |
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Mastery Motivation | |
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Harter's Theory | |
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Research Evidence | |
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Perceived Control | |
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Locus of Control | |
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Personal Causation | |
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Self-Determination Theory | |
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Assumptions | |
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Motivational Processes | |
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Research on Self-Determination | |
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Development of Self-Determination | |
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Emergent Motivation and Flow | |
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Flow | |
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Research on Flow | |
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Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation | |
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Experimental Findings | |
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Overjustification | |
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Controlling and Informational Aspects of Rewards | |
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Developing Intrinsic Motivation | |
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Summary | |
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Further Reading | |
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Teacher and Classroom Influences | |
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Instructional Practices | |
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Planning and Decision Making | |
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Grouping | |
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Effective Teaching | |
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Models | |
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Technology | |
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Effective Learning Environments | |
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Organization | |
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Management | |
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Teacher-Student Interactions | |
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Teacher Feedback | |
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Rewards | |
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Classroom Climate | |
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Praise and Criticism | |
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Unsolicited Help | |
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Teacher Expectations | |
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The Pygmalion Study | |
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Models of Teacher Expectation Effects | |
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Differential Teacher Behaviors | |
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Critique | |
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Teacher Self-Efficacy | |
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Definition, Causes, and Consequences | |
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Collective Self-Efficacy | |
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Constructivist Teaching | |
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Summary | |
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Further Reading | |
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School Influences | |
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School Culture, Climate, and Organization | |
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Norms, Values, and Shared Beliefs | |
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Climate | |
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External Constraints and Opportunities | |
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Type of Students | |
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School Size | |
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Parental Involvement in Schools | |
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District- and State-Level Constraints and Opportunities | |
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Transitions in Schooling | |
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Transition into Elementary School | |
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Transition into Middle School | |
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Transition into High School | |
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School Reform and Motivation | |
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Initiatives | |
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Principles | |
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Summary | |
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Further Reading | |
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Beyond the School: Peer, Family, and Community Influences | |
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Peers and Student Motivation | |
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Theoretical Background | |
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Peers as Sources of Competence and Support | |
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Peer Networks | |
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Peers and School Adjustment | |
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Peers and School Dropout | |
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Familial Influences | |
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Socioeconomic Status | |
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Home Environment | |
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Parenting Styles and Parent-Child Interactions | |
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Parental Home-Based Involvement in Schooling | |
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Early Intervention Programs | |
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Head Start | |
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Other Programs | |
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Community Influences | |
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Geographic Location | |
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Community Involvement | |
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Cultural Influences | |
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Summary | |
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Further Reading | |
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Glossary | |
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References | |
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Name Index | |
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Subject Index | |