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| The Bases for Assessment in the Classroom | |
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| Classroom Decision Making and Using Assessment | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| Example of Assessments Used for an Educational Decision | |
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| Teachers' Classroom Decisions | |
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| Distinctions Among Assessments, Tests, Measurements, and Evaluations | |
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| High-Stakes Assessment and Accountability | |
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| Assessment and Educational Decisions About Students | |
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| Acquiring the Competence to Assess Students | |
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| Describing the Goals and Learning Targets of Instruction | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| Importance of Specifying Objectives | |
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| Educational Goals, State Standards, and Learning Targets | |
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| Taxonomies of Learning Targets | |
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| Cognitive Domain Taxonomies | |
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| Choosing a Taxonomy | |
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| Sources for Locating Learning Targets | |
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| Evaluating the Learning Targets of a Course or Unit | |
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| How to Write Specific Learning Targets | |
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| Making Sure Assessment Tasks Are Aligned With Learning Targets | |
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| Validity of Assessment Results | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| General Nature of Validity | |
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| Four Principles for Validation | |
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| Validity of Teacher-Crafted Classroom Assessment Results | |
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| Validity of Extraclassroom Assessments | |
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| Categories of Validity Evidence | |
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| Combining Evidence for Validity Judgments: An Argument-Based Approach | |
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| Validity Issues When Accommodating Students With Disabilities | |
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| Reliability of Assessment Results | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| General Nature of Reliability | |
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| Causes of Measurement Error or Inconsistency | |
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| Types of Reliability Coefficients | |
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| Obtained Scores, True Scores, and Error Scores | |
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| Standard Error of Measurement | |
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| Additional Factors Affecting Reliability and SEM | |
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| Reliability of Mastery and Pass-Fail Decisions | |
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| How to Improve Reliability | |
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| Professional Responsibilities, Ethical Behavior, and Legal Requirements in Educational Assessments | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| A Teacher's Professional Responsibilities in Assessment | |
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| Students' Rights as Test Takers | |
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| Students' Responsibilities | |
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| Secrecy, Access, Privacy, Confidentiality, and the Teacher | |
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| Legally Defensible Assessment Accommodation Policies | |
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| Testing Challenged in Court | |
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| Bias in Educational Assessment | |
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| Possible Future Directions of Test Fairness | |
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| Crafting and Using Classroom Assessments | |
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| Planning for Integrating Assessment and Instruction | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| How Making Your Own Assessments Improves Your Teaching | |
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| Are You Assessing for Formative or Summative Purposes? | |
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| Assessment Planning for a Marking Period | |
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| Assessment Planning for One Unit of Instruction | |
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| Pretesting to Plan Your Teaching | |
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| Crafting a Plan for One Summative Assessment | |
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| Blueprints for Student-Centered Assessment | |
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| Criteria for Improving the Validity of Assessment Plans | |
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| What Range of Assessment Options Is Available? | |
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| Validity of Different Classroom Assessment Options | |
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| Completion, Short-Answer, and True-False Items | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| Three Fundamental Principles for Crafting Assessments | |
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| Short-Answer Items | |
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| True-False Items | |
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| Usefulness of True-False Items | |
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| Multiple-Choice and Matching Exercises | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| Multiple-Choice Item Format | |
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| Considerations Before Crafting Items | |
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| Advantages and Criticisms of Multiple-Choice Items | |
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| When Not to Use Multiple-Choice Items | |
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| Crafting Basic Multiple-Choice Items | |
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| A Checklist for Evaluating Multiple-Choice Items | |
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| Crafting Alternative Varieties of Multiple-Choice Items | |
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| Greater-Less-Same Items | |
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| Best-Answer Items | |
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| Experiment-Interpretation Items | |
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| Statement-and-Comment Items | |
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| Matching Exercise Format | |
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| Advantages and Criticisms of Matching Exercises | |
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| Crafting Basic Matching Exercises | |
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| Crafting Alternative Varieties of Matching Exercises | |
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| Masterlist (Keylist) Items | |
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| Tabular (Matrix) Items | |
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| Essay Assessment Tasks | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| Formats for Essay Items | |
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| Usefulness of Essay Assessments | |
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| Constructing Essays Assessing Subject-Matter Learning | |
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| Optional Questions | |
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| Constructing Prompts for Assessing Writing Achievement | |
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| Scoring Essay Assessments | |
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| Higher-Order Thinking, Problem Solving, and Critical Thinking | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| Assessing Higher-Order Thinking | |
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| Context-Dependent Item Sets | |
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| Concepts and Concept Learning | |
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| Assessing Concrete Concept Learning | |
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| Assessing Concept Understanding at a Deeper Level | |
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| Assessing Defined Concept Learning | |
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| Assessing Whether Students' Thinking Uses Rules | |
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| Assessing Comprehension of Rules and Principles | |
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| Problem Solving | |
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| Assessing Problem-Solving Skills | |
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| Other Promising Approaches for Assessing Problem Solving | |
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| Critical Thinking | |
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| Assessing Dispositions Toward Critical Thinking | |
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| Assessing Critical-Thinking Abilities | |
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| Other Specific Higher-Order Skills and Abilities | |
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| Enhanced Multiple-Choice Items | |
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| Performance, Portfolio, and Authentic Assessments: An Overview | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| What Is Performance Assessment? | |
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| Types of Performance Assessments | |
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| Authentic Assessments | |
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| Advantages and Criticisms of Performance Assessments | |
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| How Using Performance Assessment Can Improve Your Teaching | |
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| Multiple Intelligences Perspective on Performance Assessments | |
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| How to Craft Performance Tasks, Projects, Portfolios, Rating Scales, and Scoring Rubrics | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| Stages in Crafting Performance Tasks and Rubrics | |
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| Being Clear About the Performance to Assess | |
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| Crafting Performance Tasks | |
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| Crafting Rubrics, Checklists, and Rating Scales | |
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| Types of Scoring Rubrics | |
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| Crafting Scoring Rubrics: How to Do It | |
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| Crafting Checklists | |
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| Crafting Rating Scales | |
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| Evaluating Scoring Rubrics and Rating Scales | |
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| Crafting Projects | |
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| Crafting Portfolios | |
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| Electronic Portfolios | |
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| Formative Evaluation Using Informal Diagnostic Assessments | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| Diagnostic Assessment | |
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| Integrating Teaching, Diagnosis, and Assessment | |
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| Profiling Content Strengths and Weaknesses | |
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| Identifying Prerequisite Deficits | |
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| Identifying Objectives Not Mastered | |
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| Identifying Students' Errors | |
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| Identifying Student Knowledge Structures | |
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| Identifying Competencies for Solving Word Problems | |
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| Interviewing Students | |
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| Preparing Your Students to Be Assessed and Using Students' Results to Improve Your Assessments | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| Getting Students Ready | |
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| Preparing Students for the Assessment | |
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| Testwiseness | |
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| Advice About Changing Answers | |
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| Test Anxiety | |
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| Putting the Assessment Together | |
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| Assessment Format and Appearance | |
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| Preparations for Scoring the Assessment | |
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| Correction for Guessing | |
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| Using Students' Responses to Improve Assessments | |
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| Item Analysis for Classroom Assessments | |
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| Item Difficulty Index | |
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| Item Discrimination Index | |
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| Improving Multiple-Choice Item Quality | |
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| Selecting Test Items | |
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| Using Computers for Test Assembly and Item Analyses | |
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| Evaluating and Grading Student Progress | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| The Meanings and Purposes of Grades | |
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| What Are Your Attitudes Toward Marks and Grades? | |
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| Continuous Assessment and Grading | |
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| How People Perceive and Use Grades | |
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| Criticisms of Grades and Marks | |
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| Report Cards and Other Official Reports of Student Progress | |
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| Student Progress Reporting Methods | |
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| Crafting a Multiple Reporting System | |
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| Choosing a Grading Model | |
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| Overview of Section III | |
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| Basic Concepts of Grading Frameworks for Classroom Evaluation | |
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| Choosing Your Grading Model | |
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| Sensible Grading Practices | |
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| Types of Performance to Assess | |
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| Consistent Grading Throughout the Marking Period | |
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| Components of a Grade | |
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| Grade Boundaries | |
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| Failure Grades | |
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| Techniques for Setting Grade Boundaries and Combining Scores | |
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| Assigning Norm-Referenced Letter Grades | |
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| Assigning Criterion-Referenced Letter Grades | |
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| Gradebook Computer Programs | |
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| Interpreting and Using Standardized Tests | |
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| Standardized Achievement Tests | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| Types of Tests | |
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| Standardized Survey Batteries | |
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| State-Mandated Tests and Customized Tests | |
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| Nonstandardized Achievement Tests | |
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| Appropriate Uses of Standardized Test Results | |
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| Inappropriate Uses of Standardized Test Results | |
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| Multilevel Survey Batteries | |
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| Choosing Standardized Tests | |
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| Complementing Your State Assessment | |
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| How to Administer Standardized Tests | |
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| Ethical and Unethical Student Practice for Standardized Tests | |
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| Interpreting Norm-Referenced Scores | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| Three Referencing Frameworks | |
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| Using Norms | |
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| Types of Norm Groups | |
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| Overview of Norm-Referenced Scores | |
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| Percentile Ranks | |
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| Linear Standard Scores | |
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| Normal Distributions | |
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| Normalized Standard Scores | |
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| Developmental and Educational Growth Scales | |
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| Extended Normalized Standard Score Scales | |
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| Grade-Equivalent Scores | |
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| Comparison of Various Norm-Referenced Scores | |
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| General Guidelines for Score Interpretation | |
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| Interpreting Scores to Parents | |
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| Finding and Evaluating Published Assessments | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| Locating a Published Test | |
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| Locating Evaluations of Published Tests | |
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| Locating Computerized Testing Materials | |
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| Locating Unpublished Test Materials | |
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| Restrictions on Purchasing and Using Tests | |
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| Evaluating and Selecting a Test | |
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| How a Standardized Test Is Developed | |
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| Scholastic Aptitude, Career Interests, Attitudes, and Personality Tests | |
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| About This Chapter | |
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| Aptitudes for Learning | |
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| Group Tests of Scholastic Aptitudes | |
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| Group Tests of Specific Aptitudes | |
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| Individually Administered Tests of General Scholastic Aptitudes | |
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| Assessing Adaptive Behavior | |
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| Assessing Vocational and Career Interests | |
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| Assessing Attitudes | |
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| Assessing Personality Dimensions | |
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| Appendixes | |
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| Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students | |
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| Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education (Revised) | |
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| Code of Professional Responsibilities in Educational Measurement | |
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| Summaries of Taxonomies of Educational Objectives: Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor Domains | |
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| Categories of Learning Targets Derived from the Dimensions of Learning Model | |
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| Assessment of Metacognition | |
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| Examples of Alternative Blueprints for a Summative Unit Assessment | |
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| Scoring Guide for Oregon's Writing Assessment | |
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| Basic Statistical Concepts | |
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| Computational Procedures for Various Reliability Coefficients | |
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| A Limited List of Published Tests | |
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| List of Test Publishers and Their Websites | |
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| Glossary | |
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| References | |
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| Name Index | |
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| Subject Index | |