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| Preface | |
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| Introduction to Forensic Anthropology | |
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| Introduction: The Problem of the Unidentified | |
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| Who are the "missing, unidentified, and disappeared"? | |
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| Why is identification so difficult? | |
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| The Discipline of Forensic Anthropology | |
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| History of Forensic Anthropology | |
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| Educational Requirements | |
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| How is the work of an anthropologist different from the work of a pathologist or medical examiner? | |
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| Objectives of an Anthropological Investigation | |
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| Questions Basic to Personal Identification | |
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| Questions Regarding the Circumstances of Death | |
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| Cause and Manner of Death | |
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| Stages of an Investigation | |
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| Osteology, the Biology of Bone | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Why study human osteology? | |
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| What are the practical applications? | |
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| Structure and Function of the Skeletal System | |
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| Tissues: Communities of Cells with a Common Purpose | |
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| Connective Tissue: The Most Durable Tissue of the Body | |
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| Dense Connective Tissue: Holding Everything Together | |
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| Cartilage: A Strong but Flexible Connective Tissue | |
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| Bone: The Strongest, Least Flexible Connective Tissue | |
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| Classification and Description of Bones | |
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| By Location | |
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| By Size and Shape | |
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| By Origin | |
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| By Structure | |
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| Directional and Sectional Terms for the Human Body | |
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| Osteological Terms | |
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| The Skull and Hyoid | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Individualization | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Frontal Bone | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Individualization | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Parietal Bones | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Individualization | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Occipital Bone | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Individualization | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Temporal Bones | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Individualization | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Zygomatic Bone (Malar) | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Individualization | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Sphenoid | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Maxillae | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Individualization | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Mandible | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Individualization | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Nasals, Lacrimals, and Ethmoid | |
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| Age Changes in the Skull | |
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| Sex Differences in the Skull | |
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| Racial Analysis of the Skull | |
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| Individualization | |
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| Anthropometry | |
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| Frankfort Plane (a.k.a. Frankfort Horizontal) | |
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| Craniometric Points | |
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| Directions for Accurate Measurements | |
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| Measuring the Cranium | |
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| Measuring the Orbit | |
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| Measuring the Palate | |
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| Measuring the Mandible | |
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| Chord Measurements | |
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| Head Shape: Cephalic Indices and Discriminant Function Analyses | |
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| Computerized Analysis of Sex and Race: FORDISC | |
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| The Hyoid | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Clavicle: The Collar Bone | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Scapula: The Shoulder Blade | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Individualization: Handedness, Left/Right Dominance | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Ribs | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Rib Sorting: Left/Right and Superior/Inferior Recognition | |
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| Individualization: Costo-Vertebral Articulations and Abnormalities | |
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| Age Determination with Ribs | |
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| Age Changes in Sternal Rib Ends of Males | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Sternum: The Breast Bone | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Individualization | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| The Vertebral Column | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Superior/Inferior Recognition | |
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| Individualization | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Cervical Vertebrae (Atlas, Axis, and C3-C7) | |
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| Thoracic Vertebrae (T1-T12) | |
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| Lumbar Vertebrae (L1-L5) | |
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| Sacral Vertebrae (S1-S5 or Sacrum) | |
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| Coccygeal Vertebrae (Coccyx) | |
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| Reassembling the Vertebral Column, Step by Step | |
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| Sort First | |
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| Begin at the Top | |
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| Stop and Review the Results | |
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| The Aging Vertebral Body | |
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| Age Changes in Vertebral Bodies, Superior and Lateral Views | |
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| Age Changes in Older Vertebral Bodies: Osteophytic Growth | |
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| The Arm: Humerus, Radius, and Ulna-and Joints | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Joints | |
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| Structure, Function, and Movement of Joints | |
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| Synovial Joints, Types of Movement with Examples | |
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| Humerus: The Upper Arm | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Handedness | |
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| Sexual Differences | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| The Forearm | |
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| Radius | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Handedness | |
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| Sexual Differences | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Ulna | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| The Hand: Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Carpal Bones: Wrist Bones | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| A Comparison of Carpal Characteristics | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Metacarpal Bones: The Palm of the Hand | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Sex | |
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| A Comparison of Metacarpal Characteristics | |
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| Phalanges of the Hand: Finger Bones | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| A Method for Sorting Phalanges | |
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| The Pelvis (Innominate or Os Coxae) | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Innominate: Ilium, Ischium, and Pubis | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Sexual Differences | |
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| Sexual Differences in the Pubis | |
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| Sexual Differences in the Ilium | |
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| Age Changes | |
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| Age Changes in the Pubic Symphysis | |
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| Analysis of the Pubic Symphysis | |
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| Age Changes in Pubic Symphyses of Males | |
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| Age Changes in the Auricular Surface of the Ilium | |
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| The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Femur: Upper Leg, Thigh Bone | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Sexual Differences in the Femur | |
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| Racial Differences in the Femur | |
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| Bones of Confusion | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Patella: Kneecap | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Lower Leg: Tibia and Fibula | |
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| Tibia: Lower Leg, Shin Bone, Medial Ankle Bone | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Sexual Differences in the Tibia | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Fibula: Lower Leg, Lateral Ankle Bone | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Bones of Confusion | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| The Foot: Tarsal Bones, Metatarsal Bones, and Phalanges | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Tarsal Bones: Ankle and Arch of the Foot | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| A Comparison of Tarsal Characteristics | |
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| Metatarsal Bones: Foot Bones | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| A Comparison of Metatarsal Characteristics | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| Phalanges: Toe Bones | |
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| Description, Location, Articulation | |
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| Left/Right Recognition | |
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| Individualization | |
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| Origin and Growth | |
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| A Finger-Toe Comparison | |
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| Odontology (Teeth) | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Structure and Function of Teeth and Supporting Tissues | |
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| Directions, Surfaces, and Anatomy | |
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| Tooth Numbering Systems | |
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| Tooth Recognition | |
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| Tips for Distinguishing Similar Teeth | |
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| Distinguishing Maxillary Incisors from Mandibular Incisors | |
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| Distinguishing Maxillary Premolars from Mandibular Premolars | |
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| Distinguishing Maxillary Molars from Mandibular Molars | |
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| Complete Permanent Dentition | |
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| Recognizing Racial Traits | |
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| Shovel-Shaped Incisors | |
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| Carabelli's Cusp | |
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| Dental Aging | |
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| Formative Changes in Teeth | |
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| Infant and Toddler: Deciduous Dentition | |
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| Child: Mixed Dentition | |
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| Teenager and Adult: Permanent Dentition | |
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| Age Changes in Adult Teeth | |
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| Dental Anomalies | |
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| Dentistry and Oral Disease | |
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| Dental Caries | |
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| Periodontal Disease | |
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| Apical Abscess | |
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| Calculus Accumulation | |
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| Occlusion and Malocclusion | |
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| Dental Staining | |
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| "Meth Mouth": Effects of Methamphetamine Use | |
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| The Edentulous Condition: Effects of Long-Term Tooth Loss | |
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| Congenital Dental Conditions | |
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| Dental Inventory Form | |
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| Introduction to the Forensic Sciences | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Physical Evidence | |
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| What Is Evidence? | |
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| How Is Evidence Used? | |
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| Challenges in Handling Physical Evidence | |
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| Death Investigation Specialists | |
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| Ballistic Specialists | |
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| Crime Scene Investigators | |
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| Criminalists | |
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| Drug Analysts | |
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| Fingerprint Specialists | |
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| Forensic Anthropologists | |
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| Forensic Pathologists | |
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| Questioned Document Examiners | |
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| Serologists and Geneticists (Forensic Biologists) | |
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| Toxicologists | |
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| Choosing the Correct Forensic Specialist | |
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| No Visual Identification Possible | |
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| Legal Consequence Unlikely | |
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| Laboratory Analysis | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Preparation for Analysis | |
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| Physical Facility | |
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| Equipment, Supplies, and Reference Materials | |
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| Evidence Management | |
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| Assign Case Number | |
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| Organize Database | |
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| Prepare Case File | |
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| Inventory the Evidence and Assign Additional Numbers if Necessary | |
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| Transfer Non-Anthropological Evidence to Appropriate Specialists | |
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| Prepare Evidence for Examination | |
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| Skeletal Analysis and Description | |
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| Minimum Number of Individuals | |
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| Age | |
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| Sex | |
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| Race | |
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| Handedness | |
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| Stature | |
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| Trauma | |
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| Disease and Pathology | |
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| Quality Check for Skeletal Analysis | |
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| Age Changes | |
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| Sexual Variation | |
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| Racial Variation | |
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| Stature Estimation | |
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| Trauma | |
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| Disease | |
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| Human Identification (ID) | |
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| Skeletal Identification: The Challenge | |
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| Identification Levels | |
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| Methods of Identification | |
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| Field Methods | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Pre-Planning for Field Work | |
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| Objectives | |
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| Legal Permission | |
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| Funding | |
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| Insurance | |
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| Security and Storage | |
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| Antemortem Information | |
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| The Interview | |
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| Medical Records | |
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| Antemortem Photographs | |
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| Preparation for Excavation and Disinterment | |
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| Numbering System | |
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| Data Record Forms | |
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| Equipment and Supplies | |
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| Burial Location and Scene Investigation | |
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| Remote Sensing | |
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| What to Look for Before Disturbing the Surface | |
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| Burial Classification | |
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| Surface Burial or Below-Surface Burial | |
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| Individual or Commingled Burial | |
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| Isolated or Adjacent Burial | |
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| Primary or Secondary Burial | |
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| Disturbed or Undisturbed Burial | |
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| The Excavation/Exhumation | |
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| Duty Assignments | |
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| Excavation Methods | |
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| Postmortem Interval (Time since Death) and Forensic Taphonomy | |
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| Immediate Postmortem Changes | |
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| The Process of Decomposition | |
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| Environmental Factors (Climate) | |
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| Carrion Feeders | |
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| Associated Plants | |
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| Funerary Practices | |
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| Other Preservation Factors | |
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| Other Evidence of Funerary Practices | |
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| Quality Check for Field Work | |
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| Has the entire scene been searched and sampled? | |
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| Are all human remains recognized and recovered? | |
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| Is the written documentation complete? | |
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| Can the entire scene and sequence of recovery be reconstructed from the photographic documentation? | |
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| Professional Results | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Record Keeping | |
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| Background Information | |
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| Significant Dates | |
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| Chain of Custody | |
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| Notes | |
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| Report Writing | |
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| Cover Page | |
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| Case Background | |
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| Condition of the Evidence (Pre-Processing Appearance) | |
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| Inventory | |
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| Anthropological Description | |
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| Other Observations | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Recommendations | |
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| Disposition of the Remains | |
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| Signature and Date | |
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| Appendix | |
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| The Foundation | |
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| Qualification of the Expert | |
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| Authenticity of the Physical Evidence | |
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| Admissibility of Expert Witness Testimony | |
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| Depositions and Demonstrative Evidence | |
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| Deposition | |
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| Demonstrative Evidence | |
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| Basic Ethics | |
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| Respect | |
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| Honesty | |
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| Confidentiality | |
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| Hierarchy of Obligations | |
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| Final Preparation and Courtroom Testimony | |
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| Be Well Prepared | |
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| Demonstrate Honesty | |
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| Show Respect | |
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| Professional Associations | |
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| Large-Scale Applications: Disasters, Human Rights, and POW/MIA Recovery | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Disasters and Mass Fatality Incidents | |
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| MFI Response Within U.S. Government Jurisdiction | |
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| DMORT | |
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| The Role of the Forensic Anthropologist in Disaster Operations | |
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| DMORT Processing and Temporary Morgue Stations | |
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| Discussion | |
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| Human Rights Work | |
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| Introduction: The Scope of the Problem | |
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| Human Rights and the Law | |
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| The Role of the Scientist | |
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| Contributions of Forensic Anthropologists | |
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| History: The Mission in Argentina and the EAAF | |
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| International Human Rights Work and Domestic Forensic Work Compared | |
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| Critical Organizers, Funders, and Participants | |
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| Types of Missions Related to Forensic Anthropology | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| POW/MIA Repatriation | |
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| The Missing Americans | |
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| U.S. Army Central Identification Laboratory in Hawaii | |
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| Field Methods | |
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| Laboratory Methods | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Forms and Diagrams | |
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| Glossary of Terms | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Index | |