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Outline, scope, and rationale of the book | |
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Preface | |
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Natural fluid dynamics | |
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Rotating fluid dynamics: GFD Lab 0 | |
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Holicism | |
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Characteristics of the atmosphere | |
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Geometry | |
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Chemical composition of the atmosphere | |
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Physical properties of air | |
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Dry air | |
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Moist air | |
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GFD Lab I: Cloud formation on adiabatic expansion | |
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Problems | |
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The global energy balance | |
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Planetary emission temperature | |
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The atmospheric absorption spectrum | |
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The greenhouse effect | |
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A simple greenhouse model | |
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A leaky greenhouse | |
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A more opaque greenhouse | |
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Climate feedbacks | |
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Further reading | |
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Problems | |
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The vertical structure of the atmosphere | |
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Vertical distribution of temperature and greenhouse gases | |
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Typical temperature profile | |
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Atmospheric layers | |
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The relationship between pressure and density: hydrostatic balance | |
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Vertical structure of pressure and density | |
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Isothermal atmosphere | |
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Non-isothermal atmosphere | |
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Density | |
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Further reading | |
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Problems | |
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Convection | |
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The nature of convection | |
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Convection in a shallow fluid | |
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Instability | |
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Convection in water | |
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Buoyancy | |
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Stability | |
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Energetics | |
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GFD Lab II: Convection | |
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Dry convection in a compressible atmosphere | |
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The adiabatic lapse rate (in unsaturated air) | |
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Potential temperature | |
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The atmosphere under stable conditions | |
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Gravity waves | |
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Temperature inversions | |
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Moist convection | |
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Humidity | |
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Saturated adiabatic lapse rate | |
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Equivalent potential temperature | |
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Convection in the atmosphere | |
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Types of convection | |
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Where does convection occur? | |
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Radiative-convective equilibrium | |
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Further reading | |
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Problems | |
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The meridional structure of the atmosphere | |
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Radiative forcing and temperature | |
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Incoming radiation | |
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Outgoing radiation | |
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The energy balance of the atmosphere | |
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Meridional structure of temperature | |
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Pressure and geopotential height | |
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Moisture | |
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Winds | |
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Distribution of winds | |
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Further reading | |
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Problems | |
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The equations of fluid motion | |
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Differentiation following the motion | |
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Equation of motion for a nonrotating fluid | |
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Forces on a fluid parcel | |
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The equations of motion | |
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Hydrostatic balance | |
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Conservation of mass | |
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Incompressible flow | |
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Compressible flow | |
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Thermodynamic equation | |
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Integration, boundary conditions, and restrictions in application | |
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Equations of motion for a rotating fluid | |
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GFD Lab III: Radial inflow | |
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Transformation into rotating coordinates | |
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The rotating equations of motion | |
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GFD Labs IV and V: Experiments with Coriolis forces on a parabolic rotating table | |
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Putting things on the sphere | |
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GFD Lab VI: An experiment on the Earth's rotation | |
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Further reading | |
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Problems | |
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Balanced flow | |
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Geostrophic motion | |
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The geostrophic wind in pressure coordinates | |
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Highs and lows; synoptic charts | |
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Balanced flow in the radial-inflow experiment | |
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The Taylor-Proudman theorem | |
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GFD Lab VII: Taylor columns | |
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The thermal wind equation | |
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GFD Lab VIII: The thermal wind relation | |
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The thermal wind equation and the Taylor-Proudman theorem | |
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GFD Lab IX: cylinder "collapse" under gravity and rotation | |
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Mutual adjustment of velocity and pressure | |
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Thermal wind in pressure coordinates | |
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Sub geostrophic flow: the Ekman layer | |
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GFD Lab X: Ekman layers: frictionally-induced cross-isobaric flow | |
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Ageostrophic flow in atmospheric highs and lows | |
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Planetary-scale ageostrophic flow | |
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Problems | |
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The general circulation of the atmosphere | |
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Understanding the observed circulation | |
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A mechanistic view of the circulation | |
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The tropical Hadley circulation | |
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The extratropical circulation and GFD Lab XI: Baroclinic instability | |
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Energetics of the thermal wind equation | |
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Potential energy for a fluid system | |
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Available potential energy | |
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Release of available potential energy in baroclinic instability | |
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Energetics in a compressible atmosphere | |
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Large-scale atmospheric energy and momentum budget | |
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Energy transport | |
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Momentum transport | |
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Latitudinal variations of climate | |
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Further reading | |
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Problems | |
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The ocean and its circulation | |
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Physical characteristics of the ocean | |
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The ocean basins | |
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The cryosphere | |
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Properties of seawater; equation of state | |
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Temperature, salinity, and temperature structure | |
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The mixed layer and thermocline | |
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The observed mean circulation | |
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Inferences from geostrophic and hydrostatic balance | |
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Ocean surface structure and geostrophic flow | |
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Geostrophic flow at depth | |
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Steric effects | |
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The dynamic method | |
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Ocean eddies | |
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Observations of ocean eddies | |
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Further reading | |
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Problems | |
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The wind-driven circulation | |
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The wind stress and Ekman layers | |
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Balance of forces and transport in the Ekman layer | |
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Ekman pumping and suction and GFD Lab XII | |
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Ekman pumping and suction induced by large-scale wind patterns | |
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Response of the interior ocean to Ekman pumping | |
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Interior balances | |
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Wind-driven gyres and western boundary currents | |
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Taylor-Proudman on the sphere | |
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GFD Lab XIII: Wind-driven ocean gyres | |
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The depth-integrated circulation: Sverdrup theory | |
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Rationalization of position, sense of circulation, and volume transport of ocean gyres | |
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Effects of stratification and topography | |
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Taylor-Proudman in a layered ocean | |
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Baroclinic instability in the ocean | |
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Further reading | |
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Problems | |
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The thermohaline circulation of the ocean | |
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Air-sea fluxes and surface property distributions | |
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Heat, freshwater, and buoyancy fluxes | |
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Interpretation of surface temperature distributions | |
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Sites of deep convection | |
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The observed thermohaline circulation | |
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Inferences from interior tracer distributions | |
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Time scales and intensity of thermohaline circulation | |
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Dynamical models of the thermohaline circulation | |
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Abyssal circulation schematic deduced from Taylor-Proudman on the sphere | |
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GFD Lab XIV: The abyssal circulation | |
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Why western boundary currents? | |
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GFD Lab XV: Source sink flow in a rotating basin | |
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Observations of abyssal ocean circulation | |
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The ocean heat budget and transport | |
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Meridional heat transport | |
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Mechanisms of ocean heat transport and the partition of heat transport between the atmosphere and ocean | |
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Freshwater transport by the ocean | |
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Further reading | |
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Problems | |
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Climate and climate variability | |
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The ocean as a buffer of temperature change | |
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Nonseasonal changes in SST | |
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El Nino and the Southern Oscillation | |
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Interannual variability | |
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"Normal" conditions-equatorial upwelling and the Walker circulation | |
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ENSO | |
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Other modes of variability | |
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Paleoclimate | |
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Climate over Earth history | |
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Paleotemperatures over the past 70 million years: the [delta superscript 18] record | |
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Greenhouse climates | |
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Cold climates | |
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Glacial-interglacial cycles | |
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Global warming | |
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Further reading | |
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Problems | |
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Appendices | |
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Derivations | |
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The Planck function | |
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Computation of available potential energy | |
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Internal energy for a compressible atmosphere | |
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Mathematical definitions and notation | |
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Taylor expansion | |
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Vector identifies | |
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Polar and spherical coordinates | |
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Use of foraminifera shells in paleoclimate | |
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Laboratory experiments | |
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Rotating tables | |
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List of laboratory experiments | |
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Figures and access to data over the web | |
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References | |
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Textbooks and reviews | |
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Other references | |
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References to paleo-data sources | |
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Index | |