| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| About the book | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Atomic Structure of Graphene and Its Few-layer Counterparts | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bilayer, Trilayer and Few-layer Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Relationship of Graphene to Carbon Nanotubes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Other Layered 2D Crystals | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Boron Nitride Nanosheets | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transition Metal Dichalcogenides | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transition Metal Oxides | |
| |
| |
| |
| Silicene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene Oxide and Reduced Graphene Oxide | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphane and Fluorographene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nanostructured Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Patterning Graphene via Lithography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sonochemical Cutting of Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Crystallographically Selective Structuring of Graphene Through Anisotropic Etching | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene Nanoribbon Formation by 'Unzipping' Carbon Nanotubes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bottom-up Fabrication of Graphene Nanostructures | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Properties of Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electronic Properties | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Band Structure of Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transport Experiments in Graphene | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemical Properties of Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Covalent Functionalisation of Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Noncovalent Functionalisation of Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electron Spin Properties of Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spin and Magnetism in Graphite | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetism and Spin in Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Mechanical Properties of Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength | |
| |
| |
| |
| Adhesion, Tearing and Cracking of Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Role of Defects and Structural Modification on the Mechanical Properties | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene Derivatives | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene-based Composites | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Thermal Properties of Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal Conductivity | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Methods for Obtaining Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mechanical Exfoliation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction to Mechanical Exfoliation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Micromechanical Exfoliation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mechanical Cleavage of Graphite | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mechanical Milling of Graphite | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemical Exfoliation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction to Chemical Exfoliation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Review of Chemical Exfoliation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Different Types of Graphite | |
| |
| |
| |
| Different Types of Solvents | |
| |
| |
| |
| Different Types of Sonication | |
| |
| |
| |
| How to Characterise Chemically Exfoliated Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Other 2D Crystals | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reduced Graphene Oxide | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene Oxide | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemical Reduction of Graphene Oxide | |
| |
| |
| |
| Heat Treatment of Graphene Oxide | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electrochemical Reduction of Graphene Oxide | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bottom-up Synthesis of Graphene from Molecular Precursors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solution-based approaches | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solubilisation Strategies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solvothermal Synthesis and sonication | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemothermal-based Approaches | |
| |
| |
| |
| Self-assembly of Graphene Oxide Nanosheets | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemical Vapour Deposition Using Catalytic Metals | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| CVD Basics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Substrate Selection | |
| |
| |
| |
| Substrate Pretreatment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene Over Ni and Cu | |
| |
| |
| |
| Early Growth | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Role of Hydrogen in The CVD Reaction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene-other Metals and Alloys | |
| |
| |
| |
| Segregation routes | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| CVD Synthesis of Graphene Over Nonmetals | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aspects to Consider with Nonmetal Catalysts | |
| |
| |
| |
| Non-metals as Catalysts for CVD-grown Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Metal-assisted Routes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Non-metals as Catalysts for Carbon Nanowall Fabrication (vertical graphene) | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Basics of Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nanowall or Nanosheet Synthesis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Substrate-free PECVD Synthesis of Graphene Sheets | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene Formation from Solid-carbon Sources on Surfaces | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Epitaxial Growth of Graphene on SiC | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reaction Protocol | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nucleation and Growth | |
| |
| |
| |
| Epitaxial Graphene on the SiC (0001) Face | |
| |
| |
| |
| Face-to-Face Growth | |
| |
| |
| |
| Laser-induced Growth of Epitaxial Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Epitaxial Graphene on the SiC (0001) Face | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene Growth by Molecular Beam Epitaxy of SiC | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene Synthesis on Cubic SiC/Si Wafers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene From the Carbothermal Reduction of SiO<sub>x</sub> | |
| |
| |
| |
| SiC/Metal Hybrid Systems for Graphene Formation | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transfer to Arbitrary Substrates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transfer of Mechanically Exfoliated Graphene to Arbitrary Substrates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transfer of CVD-grown Graphene on Metals to Arbitrary Substrates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transfer of Graphene Grown on SiC | |
| |
| |
| |
| Towards a Universal Transfer Route for Graphene Grown on Arbitrary Substrates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Characterisation Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optical Microscopy | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Raman Spectroscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Scanning Electron Microscopy | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transmission Electron Microscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Atomic Resolution Imaging (TEM/STEM) and Atomic Scale Spectroscopy (EELS) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Surface Contamination | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determining the Number of Layers Through (Scanning) Transmission Electron Microscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Characterisation of Defects in Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Characterisation of Graphene Edges | |
| |
| |
| |
| In-situ Manipulation of Graphene in a TEM | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electron Diffraction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determining the Number of Layers Using Electron Diffraction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determining the Graphene Topography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of Stacking Order and Identification of Rotational Stacking Faults | |
| |
| |
| |
| Low-energy Electron Diffraction | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction to Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| STM Studies of Graphite | |
| |
| |
| |
| STM of Graphene on Metals | |
| |
| |
| |
| STM of Graphene on Insulators | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| AFM as a Tool for Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene on Different Surfaces | |
| |
| |
| |
| AFM Studies on GO | |
| |
| |
| |
| AFM as a Tool to Investigate and Engineer Physical Properties | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hall Mobility and Field-effect Mobility | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction to the Hall Effect | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurement of the Hall Mobility on Graphene Samples | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurement of the Field-effect Mobility in Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Maximising Mobility | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Applications of Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electronic Devices | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Graphene MOSFET | |
| |
| |
| |
| Opening a Band Gap | |
| |
| |
| |
| Strain Engineering a Band Gap | |
| |
| |
| |
| Field Induced Band Gap in Bilayer Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene Nanoribbons | |
| |
| |
| |
| Further Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Optimisation of Mobility | |
| |
| |
| |
| Deposition of a High-� Gate Dielectric and Low-Resistance Metal Contacts | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Viability of Graphene in CMOS | |
| |
| |
| |
| Radio-Frequency (RF) Electronics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Novel Field Effect Transistor Designs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gas Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Metrology and the Definition of the Ohm | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spintronics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetoresistance using Carbon Nanotubes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetoresistance using Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transparent Conducting Electrodes | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nanoelectromechanical Systems (NEMS) using Graphene | |
| |
| |
| |
| Actuation, Detection and Quality Factor of NEMS | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene Electromechanical Resonators | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Freestanding Graphene Membrances | |
| |
| |
| |
| Free-Standing Graphene as the Ultimate Microscope Slide | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene as a Template for Catalyst-Free Graphene Fabrication by Electrons | |
| |
| |
| |
| Free-Standing Graphene as a Subnanometer Trans-Electrode Membrane | |
| |
| |
| |
| Permeability of Free-Standing Graphene | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene-Based Energy Application | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene-Based Materials in Supercapacitors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene in Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitors (EDLCs) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene-Based Pseudo Capacitors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene-Based Materials in Lithium Ion Batteries | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene-Based Materials in Fuel Cells | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene-Based Materials in Solar Cells | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Superstrong Graphene Composites | |
| |
| |
| |
| Graphene-Based Composites | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ex Situ Polymerisation | |
| |
| |
| |
| In Situ Polymerization | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Index | |