Variation A Central Concept in Biology

Name: Variation A Central Concept in Biology
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ISBN: 9780120887774

ISBN-10: 0120887770

ISBN-13: 9780120887774

Edition: 2005

Authors: Brian K. Hall, Benedikt Hallgrimsson

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Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was based on the observation that there is variation between individuals within the same species. This fundamental observation is a central concept in evolutionary biology. However, variation is only rarely treated directly. It has remained peripheral to the study of mechanisms of evolutionary change. The explosion of knowledge in genetics, developmental biology, and the ongoing synthesis of evolutionary and developmental biology has made it possible for us to study the factors that limit, enhance, or structure variation at the level of an animals' physical appearance and behavior. Knowledge of the significance of variability is crucial to…

Book details

List price: $101.00
Copyright year: 2005
Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books
Publication date: 6/24/2005
Binding: Hardcover
Pages: 592
Size: 6.00" wide x 9.00" long x 1.00" tall
Weight: 1.936
Language: English



Foreword


Contributors



Variation and Variability: Central Concepts in Biology




Variation from Darwin to the Modern Synthesis



Introduction



Variation before Darwin



Darwin and Variation



Alternative Theories of Variation and Evolution



Neo-Darwinism



The Evolutionary Synthesis



Conclusions


References



The Statistics of Variation



Abstract


Introduction



Absolute Variation: Univariate Case



Levene's Test



Smith's Test



Jackknifing



Absolute Variation: Multivariate Case



Relative Variation: Univariate Case



Relative Variation: Multivariate Case



Dimensionality of Variation



Tightness



Measurement Error and Single Specimens


References



Landmark Morphometrics and the Analysis of Variation



Introduction



Coordinate Data and the Coordinate System



The General Perturbation Model for Landmark Variation



Proper Elimination of Nuisance Parameters Using a Coordinate System Invariant Method of Estimation



Adding Assumptions to the Perturbation Model



Model 0: Isotropic Error Model



Model 1: [Sigma subscript K]=Independent Local Variation



Model 2: [Sigma subscript K]=Independent Modules



Model 3: [Sigma subscript K]=Co-dependent Modules



Conclusions


Acknowledgments


References



Variation in Ontogeny



Introduction



Measuring Variation: A Case Study



Data Analyzed



Levels of Variation in Data on Growth and Protein Malnutrition



Measuring within Individual Variation



Measuring among Individual Variation



Testing for Variation between Treatment Groups



Factor Differences for within Individual Variation



Factor Differences for among Individual Variation



Implications for Studies of Variation



Utility of Standard Laboratory Animal Models



Within Individual Variation



Between or among Individual Variation



Variation across Hierarchical Levels



Conclusions


Acknowledgments


References



Constraints on Variation from Genotype through Phenotype to Fitness



Introduction



RNA Evolutionary Model



Evolving Constraints on Variation in RNA



Mechanistic Constraints



The Spectrum of Mutational Constraints



The Evolution of Mutational Constraints



Epistatic Constraints



The Spectrum of Epistatic Constraints



The Evolution of Epistatic Constraints



Viability Constraints



Modularity: A Way Out of the Constraints


Acknowledgments


References



Developmental Origins of Variation



Introduction



Does Intrinsic Developmental Variation Exist?



Intrinsic Variation in Different Environments



Potential Origins of Intrinsic Developmental Variation



Noise



An Example of Noise in Eukaryotic Transcription



Noisy bicoid Gene Expression in Fruit Flies



Noise in Asymmetry Production



Noisy Implication for Evolution



Networks



Morphogenetic Fields: A Potential Source of Variation



Implications



Summary


Acknowledgments


References



Canalization, Cryptic Variation, and Developmental Buffering: A Critical Examination and Analytical Perspective



Introduction



A Review of the Reviews



Empirical Concerns for the Study of Canalization



The Amount of Genetic Variation must be Controlled between Lines/Populations



The Need for Multiple, Independent Samples (Across Genotypes, Not Individuals)



Genetic Background must be Controlled for Comparisons between Treatments



Definitions of Canalization



Reaction Norm of the Mean (RxNM) Definition of Canalization



The Variation Approach to Canalization



Partitioning Sources of Variation



Variation within Individual (V[subscript WI])



Variation between Individuals, within Genotype (V[subscript BI])



Between-Line (Genetic) Variation (V[subscript G])



Inferring Canalization: When is a Trait Canalized?



What are the Appropriate Tests for Making Statistical Inferences about Canalization?



In the Interim...



Analysis for the RxNM Approach



The Analysis of Cryptic Genetic Variation



Mapping Cryptic Genetic Variants



Is the Genetic Architecture of Cryptic Genetic Variation Different from that of Other Genetic Variation Involved with Trait Expression?



Now that I have All of this Cryptic Genetic Variation, What do I do with It?



The Future for Studies of Canalization


Acknowledgments


References



Mutation and Phenotypic Variation: Where is the Connection? Capacitators, Stressors, Phenotypic Variability, and Evolutionary Change



Abstract


Introduction: Variability and Limits



Mutators, Recombinators, Stressors, and Genetic Variability



Mutation



Recombination



The Impact of New Mutants and Recombinants: Canalization and Capacitators



In Search of Capacitators: Genes that Influence Developmental Stability and Canalization



Capacitators, Stressors, and Quantitative Variation



Do We Need Variability Generators?



Concluding Remarks: Experimental Programs for Defining the Role of Variability Generators


References



Within Individual Variation: Developmental Noise versus Developmental Stability



Introduction



Causes of Developmental Noise



Causes of Developmental Noise at the Molecular Level



Causes of Developmental Noise at the Developmental Systems Level



Causes of Developmental Noise at the Organismal Level



Mechanisms of Developmental Stability



Mechanisms for Developmental Stability at the Molecular Level



Mechanisms for Developmental Stability at the Developmental Systems Level



Mechanisms for Developmental Stability at the Organismal Level



Implications


References



Developmental Constraints, Modules, and Evolvability



Abstract


Introduction



Evolvability and Constraints



Integration and Modularity



Developmental Origins of Covariation among Traits



Developmental Interactions and Pleiotropy



Evolution of Pleiotropy and Developmental Interactions



Modularity of Pleiotropic Effects: Inherent in Developmental Systems or Evolved Property?



From Pleiotropic Gene Effects to G Matrices



G Matrices, Constraints, and Evolutionary Dynamics



Perspective: Developmental Processes and Evolutionary Constraints


Acknowledgments


References



Developmental Regulation of Variability



Introduction



Empirical Patterns



The Ontogeny of Variation in Male Norway Rat Cranial Shape



Biological Patterns versus Artifacts



Morphological Sampling



Life History/Developmental Rate



Mechanisms Generating and Regulating Craniofacial Shape Variance



Targeted Growth



Organismal Developmental Timing



Variation in Relative Developmental Timing of Modules



Neural Regulation of Musculoskeletal Interactions



Canalized Shape as an Epiphenomenon


Acknowledgments


References



Role of Stress in Evolution: From Individual Adaptability to Evolutionary Adaptation



Introduction



Evolution of Response to Stress



Detection and Avoidance



Stress-Avoidance Strategies



Evolutionary Consequences of Stress



Stress-Induced Variation



Buffering, Accommodating, and Directing Stress-Induced Variation



Inheritance



Evolutionary Adaptation



Stress-Induced Evolution versus Stress-Induced Stasis



Conclusions


Acknowledgments


References



Environmentally Contingent Variation: Phenotypic Plasticity and Norms of Reaction



Introduction



Plasticity Concepts



Specific Types of Plasticity



Reaction Norms



Parental Effect Reaction Norms (Cross-Generational Plasticity)



Imprinted Reaction Norms



Iterated Reaction Norms



Dynamic Reaction Norms



The Genetic and Developmental Basis of Phenotypic Plasticity



Photomorphogenetic Plasticity in Plants



Adaptive Plasticity for Timing of Amphibian Metamorphosis



Mediation of Phenotypic Expression



Genetic Variation and the Evolution of Plasticity



How Plasticity Interacts with Conserved Developmental Patterns



Genetic Causation and the Butterfly Wing: A More Complicated Picture



The Same Networks May Give Rise to Both Plasticity and Constraint



What Effects Does Plasticity Have on Populations and Communities?



Research Agenda


Acknowledgments


References



Variation and Life-History Evolution



Introduction



Phenotypic Variation in a Constant Environment



Mutation-Selection Balance



Heterozygous Advantage



Antagonistic Pleiotropy



Frequency-Dependent Selection



Phenotypic Variation in a Stochastic Environment



Temporal Variation



Spatial Variation



Spatial and Temporal Variation



Predictable Environments



Temporal Variation



Spatial Variation



Concluding Comments


References



Antisymmetry



Introduction



Asymmetry Terminology



Terms for Subtle Asymmetries



Terms for Conspicuous Asymmetry in an Individual



Terms for the Orientation of Bilateral or Spiral Asymmetries



Terms for Conspicuous Asymmetries in a Population or Species



The History of Antisymmetry



Taxomonic Distribution and Functional Significance of Antisymmetry



Plants



Cnidaria



Mollusca



Annelida



Arthropoda: Chelicerata



Arthropoda: Crustacea



Arthropoda: Insecta



Brachiopoda



Bryozoa



Echinodermata



Chordata



Development and Regeneration of Asymmetry in Antisymmetric Species



Ontogeny



Regeneration of Missing Antimeres



Inheritance of Direction in Antisymmetric Species



Inheritance of Direction in Directionally Asymmetric Species



Evolutionary Significance of Antisymmetry



What Next?


Acknowledgments


Appendix


References



Variation in Structure and Its Relationship to Function: Correlation, Explanation, and Extrapolation



Abstract


Introduction



Background



Approaches to the Study of Structural Variation



Variation as an Observable Phenomenon



Variation and Taxonomic Utility



Variation Associated with Developmental Plasticity



Geographically Based Variation



In Situ Correlational Studies of the Relationship between Structural Variation and Functional Attributes



Trophic Polymorphism and Environmental Fluctuation



Clinal Variation



Microgeographic Variation



Ex Situ Studies of the Relationship between Structural Variation and Performance



Variation in Trophic Performance



Locomotor Performance



Fluctuating Asymmetry and Variation in Performance



Selection Experiments and the Investigation of the Limits of Variability



Other Measures of Structural and Functional Variation



Concluding Remarks


References



A Universal Generative Tendency toward Increased Organismal Complexity



Introduction



Internal Variance as Complexity



Three Simple Models



Model 1



Model 2



Model 3



The Effect of Increased Dimensionality



Apparent Difficulties



Is There an Upward Bias in Real Lineages?



If So, the Principle Is Supported



If Not, Why Not?



Testing the Principle



A Reversal of Intuition


References



Variation and Versatility in Macroevolution




Principles



To Vary is Easy



Evolvability and Versatility



Examples



Elephantid Teeth



Disparity and Versatility in Sciuridae



Overview and Conclusion


Acknowledgments


References



Variation and Developmental Biology: Prospects for the Future



Introduction



Model Organisms: Expanding the Fold



Ecologically Significant Differences in Form between Species



How Many Ways to Make a Phenotype: Developmental Variation and Morphological Similarity



Intraspecific Developmental Variation: Canalization and Developmental Plasticity



Conclusions


References



Phenogenetics: Genotypes, Phenotypes, and Variation



Introduction



Mechanism versus Variation



From Genotype to Phenotype: Mechanism



A Quick Digression Concerning DNA Sequence: Arbitrary and Saturated



Pretranscriptional Mechanisms



Posttranscriptional Mechanisms



From Genotype to Phenotype: Variation



A Lexicographer's Nightmare: Canalization, Robustness, Plasticity, Polyphenism...



Developmental Process: Patterning Repeated Traits



Gene Regulation and the Evolution of Phenotypes



Phenogenetic Drift: The Role of Chance in the Evolution of Genotype-Phenotype Relationships



Summary


Acknowledgments


References



The Study of Phenotypic Variability: An Emerging Research Agenda for Understanding the Developmental-Genetic Architecture Underlying Phenotypic Variation



Introduction



Variability and the Biological Hierarchy



Components of Variability



Current Approaches to Understanding the Development-Genetic Architecture of Variability



Pattern-Based Approaches



Perturbation-Based Approaches



Model-Driven Approaches



A Developmental Systems Approach to Phenotypic Variability



The Regulation of Form in the Mouse Mandible



The Regulation of Outgrowth of the Facial Prominences in Mice



Conclusion


References


Index