| |
| |
| Prologue | |
| |
| |
| Preface | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemical Thermodynamics and Flame Temperatures | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Heats of reaction and formation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Free energy and the equilibrium constants | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flame temperature calculations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Practical considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sub- and super sonic combustion thermodynamics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comparisons | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stagnation pressure considerations | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemical Kinetics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Rates of reactions and their temperature dependence | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Arrhenius rate expression | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transition state and recombination rate theories | |
| |
| |
| |
| Simultaneous interdependent reactions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chain reactions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pseudo-first-order reactions and the "fall-off" range | |
| |
| |
| |
| The partial equilibrium assumption | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pressure effect in fractional conversion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemical kinetics of large reaction mechanisms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sensitivity analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Rate of production analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Coupled thermal and chemical reacting systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mechanism simplification | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Explosive and General Oxidative Characteristics of Fuels | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chain branching reactions and criteria for explosion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Explosion limits and oxidation characteristics of hydrogen | |
| |
| |
| |
| Explosion limits and oxidation characteristics of carbon monoxide | |
| |
| |
| |
| Explosion limits and oxidation characteristics of hydrocarbons | |
| |
| |
| |
| Organic nomenclature | |
| |
| |
| |
| Explosion limits | |
| |
| |
| |
| "Low-temperature" hydrocarbon oxidation mechanisms | |
| |
| |
| |
| The oxidation of aldehydes | |
| |
| |
| |
| The oxidation of methane | |
| |
| |
| |
| Low-temperature mechanism | |
| |
| |
| |
| High-temperature mechanism | |
| |
| |
| |
| The oxidation of higher-order hydrocarbons | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aliphatic hydrocarbons | |
| |
| |
| |
| Alcohols | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aromatic hydrocarbons | |
| |
| |
| |
| Supercritical effects | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flame Phenomena in Premixed Combustible Gases | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Laminar flame structure | |
| |
| |
| |
| The laminar flame speed | |
| |
| |
| |
| The theory of Mallard and Le Chatelier | |
| |
| |
| |
| The theory of Zeldovich, Frank-Kamenetskii, and Semenov | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comprehensive theory and laminar flame structure analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| The laminar flame and the energy equation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flame speed measurements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Experimental results: physical and chemical effects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stability limits of laminar flames | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flammability limits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Quenching distance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flame stabilization (low velocity) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stability limits and design | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flame propagation through stratified combustible mixtures | |
| |
| |
| |
| Turbulent reacting flows and turbulent flames | |
| |
| |
| |
| The rate of reaction in a turbulent field | |
| |
| |
| |
| Regimes of turbulent reacting flows | |
| |
| |
| |
| The turbulent flame speed | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stirred reactor theory | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flame stabilization in high-velocity streams | |
| |
| |
| |
| Combustion in small volumes | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Detonation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Premixed and diffusion flames | |
| |
| |
| |
| Explosion, deflagration, and detonation | |
| |
| |
| |
| The onset of detonation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Detonation phenomena | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hugoniot relations and the hydrodynamic theory of detonations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Characterization of the Hugoniot curve and the uniqueness of the C-J point | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of the speed of sound in the burned gases for conditions above the C-J point | |
| |
| |
| |
| Calculation of the detonation velocity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comparison of detonation velocity calculations with experimental results | |
| |
| |
| |
| The ZND structure of detonation waves | |
| |
| |
| |
| The structure of the cellular detonation front and other detonation phenomena parameters | |
| |
| |
| |
| The cellular detonation front | |
| |
| |
| |
| The dynamic detonation parameters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Detonation limits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Detonations in nongaseous media | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diffusion Flames | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gaseous fuel jets | |
| |
| |
| |
| Appearance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Structure | |
| |
| |
| |
| Theoretical considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Burke-Schumann development | |
| |
| |
| |
| Turbulent fuel jets | |
| |
| |
| |
| Burning of condensed phases | |
| |
| |
| |
| General mass burning considerations and the evaporation coefficient | |
| |
| |
| |
| Single fuel droplets in quiescent atmospheres | |
| |
| |
| |
| Burning of droplet clouds | |
| |
| |
| |
| Burning in convective atmospheres | |
| |
| |
| |
| The stagnant film case | |
| |
| |
| |
| The longitudinally burning surface | |
| |
| |
| |
| The flowing droplet case | |
| |
| |
| |
| Burning rates of plastics: The small B assumption and radiation effects | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ignition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Concepts | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chain spontaneous ignition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal spontaneous ignition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Semenov approach of thermal ignition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Frank-Kamenetskii theory of thermal ignition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Forced ignition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spark ignition and minimum ignition energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ignition by adiabatic compression and shock waves | |
| |
| |
| |
| Other ignition concepts | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hypergolicity and pyrophoricity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Catalytic ignition | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental Combustion Considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| The nature of photochemical smog | |
| |
| |
| |
| Primary and secondary pollutants | |
| |
| |
| |
| The effect of NO[subscript x] | |
| |
| |
| |
| The effect of SO[subscript x] | |
| |
| |
| |
| Formation and reduction of nitrogen oxides | |
| |
| |
| |
| The structure of the nitrogen oxides | |
| |
| |
| |
| The effect of flame structure | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reaction mechanisms of oxides of nitrogen | |
| |
| |
| |
| The reduction of NO[subscript x] | |
| |
| |
| |
| SO[subscript x] emissions | |
| |
| |
| |
| The product composition and structure of sulfur compounds | |
| |
| |
| |
| Oxidative mechanisms of sulfur fuels | |
| |
| |
| |
| Particulate formation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Characteristics of soot | |
| |
| |
| |
| Soot formation processes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Experimental systems and soot formation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sooting tendencies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Detailed structure of sooting flames | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemical mechanisms of soot formation | |
| |
| |
| |
| The influence of physical and chemical parameters on soot formation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stratospheric ozone | |
| |
| |
| |
| The HO[subscript x] catalytic cycle | |
| |
| |
| |
| The NO[subscript x] catalytic cycle | |
| |
| |
| |
| The ClO[subscript x] catalytic cycle | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Combustion of Nonvolatile Fuels | |
| |
| |
| |
| Carbon char, soot, and metal combustion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Metal combustion thermodynamics | |
| |
| |
| |
| The criterion for vapor-phase combustion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermodynamics of metal-oxygen systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermodynamics of metal-air systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Combustion synthesis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diffusional kinetics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diffusion-controlled burning rate | |
| |
| |
| |
| Burning of metals in nearly pure oxygen | |
| |
| |
| |
| Burning of small particles - diffusion versus kinetic limits | |
| |
| |
| |
| The burning of boron particles | |
| |
| |
| |
| Carbon particle combustion (C. R. Shaddix) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Practical carbonaceous fuels (C. R. Shaddix) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Devolatilization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Char combustion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pulverized coal char oxidation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gasification and oxy-combustion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Soot oxidation (C. R. Shaddix) | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| Appendixes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermochemical Data and Conversion Factors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conversion factors and physical constants | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermochemical data for selected chemical compounds | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermochemical data for species included in reaction list of Appendix C | |
| |
| |
| |
| Adiabatic Flame Temperatures of Hydrocarbons | |
| |
| |
| |
| Adiabatic flame temperatures | |
| |
| |
| |
| Specific Reaction Rate Constants | |
| |
| |
| |
| H[subscript 2]/O[subscript 2] mechanism | |
| |
| |
| |
| CO/H[subscript 2]/O[subscript 2] mechanism | |
| |
| |
| |
| CH[subscript 2]O/CO/H[subscript 2]/O[subscript 2] mechanism | |
| |
| |
| |
| CH[subscript 3]OH/CH[subscript 2]O/CO/H[subscript 2]/O[subscript 2] mechanism | |
| |
| |
| |
| CH[subscript 4]/CH[subscript 3]OH/CH[subscript 2]O/CO/H[subscript 2]/O[subscript 2] mechanism | |
| |
| |
| |
| C[subscript 2]H[subscript 6]/CH[subscript 4]/CH[subscript 3]OH/CH[subscript 2]O/CO/H[subscript 2]/O[subscript 2] mechanism | |
| |
| |
| |
| Selected reactions of a C[subscript 3]H[subscript 8] oxidation mechanism | |
| |
| |
| |
| N[subscript x]O[subscript y]/CO/H[subscript 2]/O[subscript 2] mechanism | |
| |
| |
| |
| HCl/N[subscript x]O[subscript y]/CO/H[subscript 2]/O[subscript 2] mechanism | |
| |
| |
| |
| O[subscript 3]/N[subscript x]O[subscript y]/CO/H[subscript 2]/O[subscript 2] mechanism | |
| |
| |
| |
| SO[subscript x]/N[subscript x]O[subscript y]/CO/H[subscript 2]/O[subscript 2] mechanism | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bond Dissociation Energies of Hydrocarbons | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bond dissociation energies of alkanes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bond dissociation energies of alkenes, alkynes, and aromatics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bond dissociation energies of C/H/O compounds | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bond dissociation energies of sulfur-containing compounds | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bond dissociation energies of nitrogen-containing compounds | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bond dissociation energies of halocarbons | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flammability Limits in Air | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flammability limits of fuel gases and vapors in air at 25[degree]C and 1 atm | |
| |
| |
| |
| Laminar Flame Speeds | |
| |
| |
| |
| Burning velocities of various fuels at 25[degree]C air-fuel temperature (0.31 mol% H[subscript 2]O in air). Burning velocity S as a function of equivalence ratio [phi] in cm/s | |
| |
| |
| |
| Burning velocities of various fuels at 100[degree]C air-fuel temperature (0.31 mol% H[subscript 2]O in air). Burning velocity S as a function of equivalence ratio [phi] in cm/s | |
| |
| |
| |
| Burning velocities of various fuels in air as a function of pressure for an equivalence ratio of 1 in cm/s | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spontaneous Ignition Temperature Data | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spontaneous ignition temperature data | |
| |
| |
| |
| Minimum Spark Ignition Energies and Quenching Distances | |
| |
| |
| |
| Minimum spark ignition energy data for fuels in air at 1 atm pressure | |
| |
| |
| |
| Programs for Combustion Kinetics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermochemical parameters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Kinetic parameters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transport parameters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reaction mechanisms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermodynamic equilibrium | |
| |
| |
| |
| Temporal kinetics (Static and flow reactors) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stirred reactors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Shock tubes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Premixed flames | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diffusion flames | |
| |
| |
| |
| Boundary layer flow | |
| |
| |
| |
| Detonations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Model analysis and mechanism reduction | |
| |
| |
| Author Index | |
| |
| |
| Subject Index | |