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| Preface | |
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| Introductory and Background Material | |
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| Scope and Goals of the Text | |
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| Historical Perspective | |
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| Organization and Limitations | |
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| Structure of the Neutral Atmosphere and the Main Ionosphere | |
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| D-Region Fundamentals | |
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| The Earth's Magnetic Field and Magnetosphere | |
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| References | |
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| Fundamentals of Atmospheric, Ionospheric, and Magnetospheric Plasma Dynamics | |
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| The Basic Fluid Equations | |
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| Conservation of Mass | |
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| Equation of State | |
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| Momentum Equation for the Neutral Fluid | |
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| Momentum Equations for the Plasma | |
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| The Complete Equation Sets | |
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| Steady-State Ionospheric Plasma Motions Due to Applied Forces | |
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| Generation of Electric Fields | |
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| Electric Field Mapping | |
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| Elements of Magnetospheric Physics | |
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| The Guiding Center Equations and the Adiabatic Invariants | |
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| Magnetohydrodynamics | |
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| Are Ionospheric Electric Fields Real? | |
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| Coordinate Systems | |
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| References | |
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| Dynamics and Electrodynamics of the Equatorial Zone | |
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| Motions of the Equatorial F Region: The Database | |
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| The Equatorial F-Region Dynamo | |
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| E-Region Dynamo Theory and the Daytime Equatorial Electrojet | |
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| Further Complexities of Equatorial Electrodynamics | |
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| The Prereversal Enhancement | |
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| High-Latitude Effects on the Equatorial Electric Field | |
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| Feedback Between Electrodynamics and Thermospheric Winds | |
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| Mesospheric and Lower Thermospheric Dynamics | |
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| Atmospheric Winds in the Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere | |
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| A Primer on Turbulence and the Turbopause | |
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| References | |
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| Equatorial Plasma Instabilities and Mesospheric Turbulence | |
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| F-Region Plasma Instabilities: Observations | |
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| Development and Initiation of Convective Equatorial Ionospheric Storms (a.k.a. Equatorial Spread F) | |
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| Linear Theory of the Rayleigh-Taylor Instability | |
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| The Generalized Rayleigh-Taylor Process: Electric Fields, Neutral Winds, and Horizontal Gradients | |
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| The Seeding of Convective Ionospheric Storms by Gravity Waves | |
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| Role of Velocity Shear in Convective Ionospheric Storms | |
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| Summary of Linear Theory Results | |
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| Nonlinear Theories of Convective Ionospheric Storms | |
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| Two-Dimensional Computer Simulations | |
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| Simulations Including Seeding and Shear | |
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| Summary of Nonlinear Theory Results | |
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| Linkage of Large and Small Scales in CEIS | |
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| Evidence for a Diffusive Subrange | |
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| The Diffusive Subrange | |
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| Toward a Unified Theory for the Convective Equatorial Ionospheric Storm Spectrum | |
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| Convective Equatorial Ionospheric Storm Summary | |
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| E-Region Plasma Instabilities: The Observational Data Base | |
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| Linear Theories of Electrojet Instabilities | |
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| Nonlinear Theories of Electrojet Instabilities | |
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| Two-Step Theories for Secondary Waves | |
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| On the Observations That the Phase Velocity of Type I Equatorial Waves Is Independent of Angle | |
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| Nonlinear Gradient Drift Theories | |
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| Nonlinear Studies of Farley-Buneman (FB) Waves | |
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| D-Region Turbulence | |
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| Future Directions | |
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| References | |
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| Hydro-and Electrodynamics of the Midlatitude Ionosphere | |
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| Introduction to the Tropical and Midlatitude Ionospheres | |
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| Background Material | |
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| On the Height of the Daytime F2 Layer | |
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| Equations Including Vertical Flux Without Winds or Electric Fields | |
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| F-Layer Solutions with Production, Diffusion, and Flux | |
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| More General Nighttime Solutions | |
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| The Appleton Anomaly: An Equatorial Electric Field Effect | |
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| The Corotation Electric Field and Formation of the Plasmasphere | |
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| Electric Fields in the Tropical and Midlatitude Zone | |
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| Electric Field Measurements | |
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| Neutral Wind Effects | |
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| Combined Effects of Electric Fields and Neutral Winds | |
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| Complexities of the Real Nighttime Tropical Ionosphere | |
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| The Transition Zone Between Mid-and High Latitudes | |
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| Midlatitude Lower Thermosphere Dynamics | |
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| Tidal Effects | |
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| Wind Profiles | |
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| References | |
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| Waves and Instabilities at Midlatitudes | |
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| Mesoscale Vertical Organization of Ionospheric Plasma: General Considerations | |
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| Oscillations of the Neutral Atmosphere | |
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| Role of Gravity Waves and Tides in Creating Vertical Ionospheric Structure | |
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| Effects of Particle Precipitation at Midlatitudes | |
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| Horizontal Structure in the Midlatitude Ionosphere | |
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| Midlatitude F-Region Plasma Instabilities | |
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| F-Region Plasma Instabilities in the Equatorial Anomaly (Equatorial Arc) Region | |
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| Local Midlatitude F-Region Plasma Instabilities: A New Process | |
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| Linear Theory for the Perkins Instability | |
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| Midlatitude E-Region Instabilities | |
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| Radiowave Observations of Nighttime Midlatitude E-Region Instabilities | |
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| Multiexperimental Observations of Midlatitude Structures | |
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| Midlatitude E-Region Instabilities: Difficulties with Simple Explanations | |
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| The Effect of a Wind Shear: The Kelvin-Helmholtz Instability as a Source of Q-P Echoes | |
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| The Role of Horizontal Structure: Amplification by the Cowling Effect | |
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| Spontaneous Structuring by the Es-Layer Instability | |
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| Coupling of Es Layers and the F Layer | |
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| The Wavelength Limiting Effect and Small-Scale Instabilities | |
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| Wind-Driven Thermal Instabilities | |
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| References | |
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| Dynamics and Electrodynamics of the Mesosphere | |
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| Noctilucent Clouds (NLC) and the Solstice Temperature Anomaly | |
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| Gravity Wave Breaking | |
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| The Polar Summer Mesosphere: A Wave-Driven Refrigerator | |
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| New Observations of NLC and Related Phenomena | |
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| Polar Mesosphere Summer Echoes (PMSE) | |
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| The Role of Charged Ice | |
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| On the Possible Relationship Between PMSE, NLC, and Atmospheric Change | |
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| Upward-Propagating Lightning | |
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| Nonlinear Mesospheric Waves | |
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| Observations | |
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| Analogy to a Hydraulic Jump | |
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| Nonlinear Simulation of Mesospheric Bores | |
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| References | |
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| High-Latitude Electrodynamics | |
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| Electrical Coupling Between the Ionosphere, Magnetosphere, and Solar Wind | |
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| General Relationships | |
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| A Qualitative Description of Convection for Southward IMF | |
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| Energy Transfer | |
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| Additional Complexities | |
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| Observations of Ionospheric Convection | |
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| Observations During Southward IMF | |
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| Observations During Northward IMF | |
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| Simple Models of Convection in the Magnetosphere | |
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| Models for Southward IMF | |
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| Models for Northward IMF | |
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| Empirical and Analytical Representations of High-Latitude Convection | |
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| Observations of Field-Aligned Currents | |
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| Current Patterns for a Southward IMF | |
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| Current Patterns for a Northward IMF | |
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| Dependence on Magnetic Activity, IMF, and Season | |
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| Horizontal Currents at High Latitudes | |
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| References | |
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| Ionospheric Response to Electric Fields | |
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| Ionospheric Effects of Parallel Plasma Dynamics | |
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| Ionospheric Composition at High Latitudes | |
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| Hydrodynamic Theory of the Polar Wind | |
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| Ionospheric Effects of Perpendicular Plasma Dynamics | |
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| The Role of Horizontal Transport | |
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| Ion Heating Due to Collisions | |
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| Velocity-Dependent Recombination | |
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| Positive and Negative Ionospheric Storms | |
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| Electrodynamic Forcing of the Neutral Atmosphere | |
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| J x B Forcing | |
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| Global Observations and Simulations | |
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| Particle Acceleration in the Topside Ionosphere | |
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| Parallel Electric Fields in the Upper Ionosphere | |
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| Ion Outflows and Perpendicular Ion Acceleration | |
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| Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Instabilities and Structures in the High-Latitude Ionosphere | |
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| Planetary and Large-Scale Structures in the High-Latitude F Region | |
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| Convection and Production as Sources of Planetary Scale Structure in the High-Latitude Ionosphere | |
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| Some Effects of Plasma Transport and Loss on the Large-Scale Horizontal Structure of the Ionosphere | |
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| Longitudinal Structures Due to Localized Sub-Auroral Electric Fields | |
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| Temperature Enhancements in the Trough and Stable Auroral Red Arcs | |
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| Horizontal Plasma Variations Due to Localized Plasma Production and Heating | |
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| Summary | |
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| Intermediate-Scale Structure in the High-Latitude F Region | |
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| The Generalized E x B Instability at High Latitudes | |
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| Turbulent Mixing as an Alternative to Plasma Instabilities | |
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| Diffusion and Image Formation | |
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| Small-Scale Waves in the High-Latitude F Region | |
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| E-Region Layering at High Latitudes | |
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| Plasma Waves and Irregularities in the High-Latitude E Region: Observations | |
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| Radar Observations | |
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| Rocket Observations of Auroral Electrojet Instabilities | |
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| Simultaneous Data Sets | |
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| Summary | |
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| Linear Auroral Electrojet Wave Theories | |
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| The Gradient Drift Instability | |
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| The Two-Stream Instability and Type 4 Radar Echoes | |
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| Type 3 Radar Echoes: Are They Due to Ion Cyclotron Waves? | |
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| Nonlinear Theories | |
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| Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Index | |