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| Preface | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Purpose of Book | |
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| Need for Measurements | |
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| Neasurement Cost Considerations | |
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| Abbreviations and Symbols | |
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| Numerical Considerations | |
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| Scales of Measurement | |
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| Significant Digits and Rounding Off | |
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| English Versus Metric Systems | |
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| Presenting Information | |
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| Preparation of Graphs | |
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| Preparation of Technical Reports | |
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| Reviews of Technical Literature | |
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| Problems | |
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| Statistical Methods | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Bias, Accuracy, and Precision | |
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| Calculating Probabilities | |
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| Factorial Notation, Permutations, and Combinations | |
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| Statistical Concepts | |
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| Analysis of Data | |
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| Populations, Parameters, and Variables | |
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| Frequency Distributions | |
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| Statistical Computations | |
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| Mode, Median, and Mean | |
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| The Range and Average Deviation | |
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| Variance and Standard Deviation | |
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| Coefficient of Variation | |
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| Standard Error of the Mean | |
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| Confidence Limits | |
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| Covariance | |
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| Simple Correlation Coefficient | |
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| Expansion of Means and Standard Errors | |
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| Mean and Vairance of Linear Functions | |
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| Simple Linear Regression | |
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| Definitions | |
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| A Linear Equation | |
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| A Sample Problem | |
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| Indicators of Fit | |
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| Regression Through the Origin | |
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| Hazards of Interpretation | |
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| Multiple Regression | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Sampling Designs | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Sampling Versus Complete Enumeration | |
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| The Sampling Frame | |
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| Simple Random and Systematic Sampling | |
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| Simple Random Sampling | |
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| Sampling Intensity | |
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| Effect of Plot Size on Variability | |
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| Systematic Sampling | |
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| Stratified Random Sampling | |
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| Stratifying the Population | |
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| Proportional Allocation of Field Plots | |
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| Optimum Allocation of Field Plots | |
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| Sample Size for Stratified Sampling | |
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| Regression and Ratio Estimation | |
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| Regression Estimation | |
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| Comparison of Regression Estimation to Simple Random Sampling | |
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| Ratio Estimation | |
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| Double Sampling | |
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| Double Sampling with Regression and Ratio Estimators | |
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| Double Sampling for Stratification | |
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| Cluster and Two-Stage Sampling | |
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| Cluster Sampling | |
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| Two-Stage Sampling | |
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| Sampling for Discrete Variables | |
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| Simple Random Sampling for Attributes | |
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| Cluster Sampling for Attributes | |
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| Relative Efficiencies of Sampling Plans | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Land Measurements | |
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| Applications of Surveying | |
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| Measuring Distances | |
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| Pacing Horizontal Distances | |
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| Chaining Horizontal Distances | |
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| Methods of Tape Graduation | |
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| Electronic Distance Measurement | |
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| Using Magnetic Compasses | |
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| Nomenclature of the Compass | |
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| Magnetic Declination | |
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| Allowance for Declination | |
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| Use of the Compass | |
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| Area Determination | |
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| Simple Closed Traverse | |
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| Graphical Area Determination | |
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| DOT Grids | |
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| Planimeters | |
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| Transects | |
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| Topographic Maps | |
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| Colonial Land Subdivision | |
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| Metes and Bounds Surveys | |
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| The U.S. Public Land Survey | |
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| History | |
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| The Method of Subdivision | |
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| The 24-Mile Tracts | |
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| Townships | |
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| Establishment of Sections and Lots | |
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| Survey Field Notes | |
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| Marking Land Survey Lines | |
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| Global Positioning Systems | |
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| Purpose of GPS | |
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| How GPS Works | |
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| GPS Accuracy | |
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| Differential Correction | |
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| GPS Data | |
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| GPS Receivers | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Cubic Volume, Cord Measure, and Weight Scaling | |
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| Logs, Bolts, and Scaling Units | |
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| Computing Cross-Sectional Areas | |
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| Log Volumes and Geometric Solids | |
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| Scaling by the Cubic Foot | |
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| Inscribed Sqaure Timbers | |
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| Measuring Stacked Wood | |
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| The Cord | |
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| Solid Contents of Stacked Wood | |
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| An Ideal Measure | |
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| Weight Scaling of Pulpwood | |
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| The Appeal of Weight Scaling | |
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| Variations in Weight | |
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| Wood Density and Weight Ratios | |
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| Advantages of Weight Scaling | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Log Rules, Scaling Practices, and Specialty Wood Products | |
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| Log Rules | |
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| General Features of Board-Foot Log Rules | |
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| Derivation of Log Rules | |
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| Mill-Tally Log Rules | |
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| Board Foot-Cubic Root Ratios | |
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| Scribner Log Rule | |
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| Doyle Log Rule | |
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| International Log Rule | |
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| Overrun and Underrun | |
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| Board-Foot Volume Conversions | |
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| Board-Foot Log Scaling | |
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| Scaling Straight, Sound Logs | |
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| Log Defects | |
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| Board-Foot Deduction Methods | |
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| Cull Percent Deduction Methods | |
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| Merchantable Versus Cull Logs | |
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| Scaling Records | |
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| Log Scanning | |
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| Log Grading | |
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| Need for Log Grading | |
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| Hardwood Log Grading | |
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| Softwood Log Grading | |
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| Weight Scaling of Sawlogs | |
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| Advantages and Limitations | |
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| Volume-Weight Relationships for Sawlogs | |
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| Specialty Wood Products | |
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| Specialty Products Defined | |
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| Veneer Logs | |
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| Poles and Piling | |
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| Fence Posts | |
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| Railroad Ties | |
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| Mine Timbers | |
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| Stumps for the Wood Naval-Stores Industry | |
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| Bolts and Billets | |
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| Fuel Wood | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Measuring Standing Trees | |
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| Tree Diameters | |
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| Diameter at Breast Height for Irregular Trees | |
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| Measuring Bark Thickness | |
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| Tree Diameter Classes | |
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| Basal Area and Mean Diameter | |
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| Upper-Stem Diameters | |
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| Tree Heights | |
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| Height Poles | |
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| Height Measurement Principles | |
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| Merritt Hypsometer | |
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| Total Versus Merchantable Heights | |
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| Sawlog Merchantability for Irregular Stems | |
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| Tree Form Expressions | |
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| Form Factors and Quotients | |
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| Girard Form Class | |
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| Form Measurements | |
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| Tree Crowns | |
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| Importance of Crown Measures | |
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| Crown Width | |
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| Crown Length | |
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| Crown Surface Area and Volume | |
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| Tree Age | |
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| Definitions | |
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| Age From Annual Rings | |
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| Age Without Annual Rings | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Volumes and Weights of Standing Trees | |
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| Purpose of Volume and Weight Equations | |
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| Types of Tree Volume and Weight Equations | |
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| Multiple-Entry Volume Tables | |
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| Form-Class Versus Non-Form-Class Equations | |
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| Compilation of MEsavage-Girard Form-Class Tables | |
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| Constructing Multiple-Entry Volume Equations | |
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| Selecting a Multiple-Entry Volume Equation | |
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| Making Allowances for Various Utilization Standards | |
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| Tree Volumes From Taper Equations | |
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| Integrating Taper Functions | |
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| Single-Entry Volume Equations | |
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| Advantages and Limitations | |
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| Constructing a Single-Entry Equation from Measurements of Felled Trees | |
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| Derivation from a Multiple-Entry Equation | |
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| Tarif Tables | |
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| Tree Weight Equations | |
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| Field Tallies by Weight | |
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| Weight Equations for Tree Boles | |
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| Biomass Equations | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Forest Inventory | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Classes of Timber Surveys | |
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| Inventory Planning | |
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| Forest Inventory and Analysis | |
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| Special Inventory Considerations | |
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| Tree Tallies | |
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| Electronic Data Recorders | |
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| Tree-Defect Estimation | |
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| The Complete Tree Tally | |
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| Organizing the Complete Tree Tally | |
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| Timber Inventory as a Sampling Process | |
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| Summaries of Cruise Data | |
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| Stand and Stock Tables | |
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| Timber Volumes From Stump Diameters | |
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| Sales of Standing Timber | |
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| Stumpage Value | |
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| Methods of Selling Standing Timber | |
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| Timber-Sale Contracts | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Inventories with Sample Strips or Plots | |
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| Fixed-Area Sampling Units | |
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| Strip System of Cruising | |
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| Strip-Cruise Layout | |
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| Computing Tract Acreage From Sample Strips | |
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| Field Procedure for Strip Cruising | |
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| Pros and Cons of Strip Cruising | |
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| Line-Plot System of Cruising | |
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| The Traditional Approach | |
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| Plot Cruise Example | |
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| Sampling Intensity and Design | |
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| Cruising Techniques | |
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| Boundary Overlap | |
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| Merits of the Plot System | |
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| Use of Permanent Sample Plots | |
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| Criteria for Inventory Plots | |
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| Sample Units: Size, Shape, and Number | |
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| Field-Plot Establishment | |
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| Field-Plot Measurements | |
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| Periodic Reinventories | |
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| Regeneration Surveys with Sample Plots | |
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| Need for Regeneration Surveys | |
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| Stocked-Quadrat Method | |
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| Plot-Count Method | |
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| Staked-Point Method | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Inventories with Point Samples | |
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| The Concept of Point Sampling | |
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| Nomenclature and Variants | |
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| Selecting a Sighting Angle | |
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| Plot Radius Factor | |
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| How Point Sampling Works | |
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| Imaginary Tree Zones | |
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| Equality of Tree Basal Area on a Per-Acre Basis | |
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| Implementing Point Sampling | |
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| The Stick-Type Angle Gauge | |
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| The Spiegel Relascope | |
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| The Wedge Prism | |
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| Calibration of Prisms or Angle Gauges | |
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| Corrections for Slope | |
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| Doubtful Trees, Limiting Distances, and Bias | |
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| Boundary Overlap | |
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| Choice of Instruments | |
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| Volume Calculations | |
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| Example of Computational Procedures | |
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| Basal Area Per Acre | |
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| Trees Per Acre | |
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| Volume Per Acre by the Volume-Factor Approach | |
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| Volume Per Acre by the Volume/Basal-Area Ratios Approach | |
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| Estimating Precision | |
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| Field Tally by Height Class | |
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| Point Sampling in a Double-Sampling Context | |
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| Estimating Growth from Permanent Points | |
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| Point-Sample Cruising Intensity | |
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| Comparisons with Conventional Plots | |
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| Number of Sampling Points Needed | |
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| Point Samples Versus Plots | |
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| Attributes and Limitations | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Inventories with 3P Sampling | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Components of 3P Inventory | |
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| How 3P is Applied | |
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| Timber-Sale Example | |
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| Preliminary Steps | |
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| Field Procedure | |
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| Sample-Tree Measurement | |
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| 3P Computations | |
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| Numerical Example | |
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| Extensions, Attributes, and Limitations of Basic 3P Sampling | |
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| Extensions of Basic 3P Sampling | |
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| Attributes and Limitations of 3P Sampling | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Using Aerial Photographs | |
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| Purpose of Chapter | |
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| Types of Aerial Photographs | |
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| Black-and-White Aerial Films | |
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| Color Aerial Films | |
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| Seasons for Aerial Photography | |
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| Determining Photographic Scales | |
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| Photogeometry | |
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| Aligning Prints for Stereoscopic Study | |
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| Cover-Type Identificaion and Mapping | |
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| Forest Type Recognition | |
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| Identifying Individual Species | |
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| Timber Type Maps | |
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| Using Photos for Field Travel | |
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| Basic Forest Measurements | |
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| Measuring Area and Distance | |
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| Measuring Heights by Parallax | |
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| Parallax-Measuring Devices | |
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| Tree-Crown Diameters | |
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| Tree Counts | |
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| Individual-Tree Volumes | |
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| Aerial Stand-Volume Tables | |
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| Crown Closure | |
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| Stand-Volume Estimates | |
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| Adjusting Photo Volumes by Field Checks | |
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| Obtaining Aerial Photographs | |
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| The Options | |
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| Photography from Commercial Firms | |
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| Photography from the U.S. Government | |
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| Photography from the Canadian Government | |
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| Taking Your Own Pictures | |
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| Contracting For New Photography | |
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| Other Remote-Sensing Tools | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Geographic Information Systems | |
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| What is a GIS? | |
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| GIS Data Structures | |
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| Data Formats | |
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| Raster Data | |
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| Vector Data | |
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| Raster Versus Vector Systems | |
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| Geographic Coordinate Systems | |
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| Types of Coordinate Systems | |
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| The Latitude and Longitude System | |
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| The Universal Transverse Mercator Coordinate System | |
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| The State Plane Coordinate System | |
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| GIS Data Sources, Entry, and Quality | |
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| Deriving Digital Maps | |
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| Existing Map Data | |
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| Digitizing and Scanning | |
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| Field and Image Data | |
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| Errors and Accuracy | |
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| GIS Analysis Functions | |
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| Analysis-The Power of GIS | |
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| Spatial Analysis Functions | |
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| Cartographic Modeling | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Site, Stocking, and Stand Density | |
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| The Concepts of Site | |
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| Direct Measurement of Forest Productivity | |
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| Tree Height as a Measure of Site Quality | |
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| Field Measurement of Site Index | |
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| Construction of Site-Index Curves | |
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| Interspecies Site-Index Relationships | |
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| Periodic Height Growth | |
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| Physical-Factors Approach | |
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| Indicator-Plant Approach | |
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| Limitations of Site Index | |
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| Stocking and Stand Density | |
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| Definitions | |
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| Measures of Stocking | |
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| Basal Area Per Acre | |
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| Trees Per Acre | |
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| Stand-Density Index | |
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| 3/2 Law of Self-Thinning | |
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| Relative Spacing | |
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| Crown Competition Factor | |
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| Stocking Guides | |
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| Measures of Point Density | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Tree-Growth and Stand-Table Projection | |
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| Increases in Tree Diameter | |
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| Increases in Tree Height | |
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| Periodic and Mean Annual Growth | |
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| Past Growth From Complete Stem Analysis | |
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| Tree Growth as a Percentage Value | |
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| Predictions of Tree Growth | |
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| Future Yields from Growth Percentage | |
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| Growth Prediction from Diameter and Height Increases | |
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| Stand-Table Projection | |
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| Components of Stand Growth | |
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| Characteristics of Stand-Table Projection | |
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| Diameter Growth | |
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| Stand Mortality and Ingrowth | |
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| A Sample Stand Projection | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Growth and Yield Models | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Growth and Yield Relationships | |
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| Mathematical Relationships Between Growth and Yield | |
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| Growth and Yield Models for Even-Aged Stands | |
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| Normal Yield Tables | |
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| Empirical Yield Tables | |
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| Variable-Density Growth and Yield Equations | |
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| Size-Class Distribution Models | |
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| Example of Computatins for Size-Class Distribution Model | |
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| Individual-Tree Models for Even-Aged Stands | |
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| Growth and Yield Models for Uneven-Aged Stands | |
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| Special Considerations in Modeling Uneven-Aged Stands | |
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| Growht and Yield Equations Based on Elasped Time | |
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| Size-Class Distribution Models Using Stand-Table Projection | |
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| Individual-Tree Models that Include Uneven-Aged Stands | |
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| Applying Growth and Yield Models | |
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| Enhancing Output from Growth and Yield Models | |
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| Choosing an Appropriate Growth and Yield Model | |
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| A Word of Caution | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Assessing Rangeland, Wildlife, Water, and Recreational Resources | |
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| Purpose of Chapter | |
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| Measuring Rangeland Resources | |
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| Forage Resources | |
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| Planning Range Measurements | |
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| Sampling Considerations | |
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| Determining Grazing Capacity | |
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| Clipped-Plot Technique | |
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| Range-Utilization Estimates | |
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| Range Condition and Trend | |
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| Measuring Wildlife Resources | |
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| Animal Populations and Habitat | |
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| Population Estimates | |
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| Habitat Measurement | |
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| Measuring Water Resources | |
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| Importance of Water | |
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| Factors Affecting Runoff | |
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| Physical Characteristics of a Watershed | |
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| Measurement of Water Quantity | |
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| Measurement of Water Quality | |
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| Measuring Recreational Resources | |
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| The Problem | |
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| Visitor Use of Recreational Facilities | |
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| Assessing Potential Recreational Sites | |
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| Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Answers to Selected Problems | |
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| Glossay | |