UNIT 1. Natural History and the Spread of Humankind 1. Stand and Deliver: Why Did Early Hominids Begin to Walk on Two Feet?, Ian Tattersall, Natural History , November 2003 What got humankind started on its unique evolutionary trajectory? The ability to walk upright on two feet— bipedalism is what it’s called—allowed hominids to outshine their prehistoric cousins. As their environment changed, they adapted. Once they had the ability to hunt and tasted red meat, the competition was over. Bipedalism was here to stay! So was meat! 2. The Scavenging of “Peking Man”, Noel T. Boaz and Russell L. Ciochon, Natural History , March 2001 The most important archaeological site in China… is Dragon Bone Hill, 30 miles southwest of Beijing. Excavations from 1921 to 1982 uncovered the remains of 45 individuals with their tools and debris dating from 300,000 to 600,000 years ago. These remains of Peking Man, once thought to reveal the use of fire and cannibalism, may show that early man was eaten by hyenas. 3. Mapping the Past, Adam Goodheart, Civilization , March/April 1996 Genetic historians are using DNA analysis to track the migration of human beings. American Indians can be traced to a region of Mongolia and Polynesians have been tracked to southeast Asia. DNA markers may eventually provide a “map” of the entire human species. 4. First Americans, Karen Wright, Discover , February 1999 Long thought that the first humans in the New World crossed the Bering Strait at the end of the Ice Age , recent archaeological evidence seems to indicate that none of this may be true. Scientists continued to search for clues pertaining to who, how, and when the earliest Americans arrived. 5. Japanese Roots, Jared Diamond, Discover , June 1998 The origins of the Japanese people offer a mystery. Genetically they are similar to other Asians, especially Koreans, but their language is distinctly different. Interpretations of Japanese origins are complicated by myth and long-standing enmities. UNIT 2. The Beginnings of Culture, Agriculture, and Cities 6. Prehistory of Warfare, Steven A. LeBlanc, Archaeology , May/June 2003 According to Steven LeBlanc, humans have been at each others’ throats since the prehistoric era . This predilection for organized violence has been largely ignored by previous archaeologists, even though LeBlanc finds evidence in every corner of the world. Wars in prehistoric times—should we be surprised? 7. Writing Gets a Rewrite, Andrew Lawler, Science , June 29, 2001 The commonly-held belief that writing began in Mesopotamia five thousand years ago is being challenged by researchers today. Evidence gathered in recent years indicates that it may have developed simultaneously in Mesopotamia, Egypt , and the Indus River valley . But the findings, while promising, are not conclusive enough to make a case for that theory. Perhaps future discoveries will shed new light on this important question. 8. Time and the River: Life in Ancient Egypt Was Geared to the Annual Nile Flood, John Baines, Unesco Courier , September 1988 Most early civilizations developed around rivers , their histories inextricably tied to a river’s bounty—none more so than Egypt . The Nile River not only provided Egypt with economic sustenance and political unity, but also shaped Egypt’s mythology and worldview . 9. Poets and Psalmists: Goddesses and Theologians, Samuel Noah Kramer, from The Legacy of Sumer: Invited Lectures on the Middle East at the Univ. of Texas , Undena Publications, 1976 Was Sumerian society really male-dominated ? Were women second-class citizens in civic, economic, legal, educational, and theological matters? Not according to recent archeological discoveries. At least, prior to 2000 B.C.E., we have strong evidence that women of the ruling class enjoyed social and economic equality with men. And, in the heavenly realm, the Goddess Inanna retained her status as “Queen of Heaven.” Enheduanna, daughter of Sargon the Great, presided over the temple in the city of Ur, as high priestess and resident liturgical poet. 10. The Cradle of Cash, Heather Pringle, Discover , October 1998 With the growth of cities and markets there arose a need for a standard way to express the value of varied items. Simple barter became impossible. Silver rings, gold, and ingots provided this necessary medium of exchange in Mesopotamia as early as 2500 B.C.E. UNIT 3. The Early Civilizations to 500 B.C.E. 11. Indus Valley, Inc., Shanti Menon, Discover , December 1998 Starting around 3300 B.C.E., the Indus Valley civilization built some of the earliest planned cities at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, and they flourished for 700 years. Streets were laid out in a grid, and houses were constructed with standard-sized bricks. Practical and business-like, the remains of the civilization reflect little warfare or elaborate burials. 12. Five Ways to Conquer a City, Erika Bleibtreu, Biblical Archaeology Review , May/June 1990 Archaeological excavations and drawings of Assyrian palaces built from 883–627 B.C.E. reveal themes of warfare and conquest. Ladders, fire, siege, battering, and burrowing were all methods of attack against a walled city. 13. Empires in the Dust, Karen Wright, Discover , March 1998 4000 years ago, some Bronze Age cultures—Minoan, Egyptian, Indian, and Accadian —disintegrated. Was political strife and social unrest responsible? Or did a change in climate , bring about severe droughts ? The jury is still out. 14. Out of Africa: The Superb Artwork of Ancient Nubia, David Roberts, Smithsonian , June 1993 Due to prejudice, undeciphered writing, lack of archaeological exploration, inhospitable climate, and information that came mainly from enemies, the Nubian civilization is largely unknown except through recent displays of art. It was once thought to be an offshoot of Egyptian culture, but this black civilization flourished at the same time as Egypt’s and once conquered all of Egypt around 730 B.C.E. 15. Scythian Gold, Doug Stewart, Smithsonian , March 2000 The Scythians were a nation of warring nomads who dominated the European Steppe from the seventh to the third century B.C.E. They did not write or build cities, but they brought from the Greeks a lightweight gold artwork design