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Introduction to Criminal Justice Research Methods: Theory and Method | |
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Scientific Research in Criminal Justice | |
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Common Sense and Nonsense | |
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Why Study Research Methods in Criminal Justice? | |
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The Emergence of Science and Criminal Justice | |
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The Probabilistic Nature of Science | |
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Proper Conduct of Critical Inquiry | |
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Approaches to Theory and Method in Criminal Justice | |
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Merton's "Matthew Effect" in Science | |
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The Paradigm Shift in Policing | |
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Pure Versus Applied Research | |
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The Project on Human Development | |
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Crime Analysis: Applied Criminal Justice Research | |
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Qualitative and Quantitative Research | |
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Researchese: the Language of Research | |
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Concepts | |
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Operationalization | |
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Variables | |
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Dependent and Independent Variables | |
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Theories/Hypotheses | |
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Examples of the Research Process | |
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Recidivism among Juvenile Offenders | |
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General Steps in Empirical Research in Criminal Justice | |
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Problem Formulation: Selection of Research Problem | |
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Problem Formulation: Specification of Research Problem | |
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Feminist Perspectives and Research Methods | |
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The World Wide Web (WWW) | |
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Ethics in Criminal Justice Research | |
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Ethical Horror Stories | |
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Biomedical Examples | |
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Social Science Examples | |
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AIDS Research in Africa and Asia: Is It Ethical? | |
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Researcher Fraud and Plagiarism | |
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Legendary Research Scams | |
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The Researcher's Role | |
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Research Targets in Criminal Justice | |
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Ethics and Professionalism | |
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Ethics in Criminal Justice Research | |
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History of Federal Regulation of Research | |
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The Belmont Report | |
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Institutional Review Boards | |
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Research Activities Exempt from HHS Review | |
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National Institute of Justice's Human Subject Protection Requirements | |
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Confidentiality of Criminal Justice Research | |
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Codes of Research Ethics of the ACJS and the ASC | |
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Ethical Issues in Criminology/Criminal Justice Research | |
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Avoid Research That May Harm Respondents | |
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Honor Commitments to Respondents and Respect Reciprocity | |
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Exercise Objectivity and Professional Integrity in Performing and Reporting Research | |
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Protect Confidentiality and Privacy of Respondents | |
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Ethical Problems | |
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The Brajuha Case (Weinstein Decision) | |
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The Ofshe Case | |
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The Hutchinson Case | |
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Additional Ethical Concerns | |
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Avoiding Ethical Problems | |
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Research Design: The Experimental Model and Its Variations | |
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The Experimental Model | |
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Research Design in a Nutshell | |
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Causality | |
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Resolution of the Causality Problem | |
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Rival Causal Factors | |
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Validity | |
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Internal Factors: Variables Related to Internal Validity | |
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History | |
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Maturation | |
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Testing | |
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Instrumentation | |
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Statistical Regression | |
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Selection Bias | |
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Experimental Mortality | |
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Selection--Maturation Interaction | |
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External Factors: Variables Related to External Validity | |
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Testing Effects | |
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Selection Bias | |
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Reactivity or Awareness of Being Studied | |
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Multiple-Treatment Interferences | |
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Related Rival Causal Factors | |
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Hawthorne Effect | |
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Halo Effect | |
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Post Hoc Error | |
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Placebo Effect | |
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Other Rival Causal Factors in Criminal Justice Field Experiments | |
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Diffusion of Treatment | |
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Compensatory Equalization of Treatment | |
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Local History | |
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Experimental Designs | |
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The Classic Experimental Design | |
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Some Criminal Justice Examples of the Classic Experimental Design | |
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Candid Camera | |
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Scared Straight | |
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Community Policing | |
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The Kansas City Gun Experiment | |
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Other Experimental Designs | |
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Posttest-Only Control Group Design | |
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Solomon Four-Group Design | |
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Preexperimental Designs | |
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One-Group Ex Post Facto Design | |
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One-Group Before-After Design | |
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Two-Group Ex Post Facto Design | |
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Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Designs | |
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The Cycle of Violence and Victims of Child Abuse | |
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Quasi-Experimental Designs | |
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Time-Series Designs | |
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Multiple Interrupted Time-Series Designs | |
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Counterbalanced Designs | |
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Some Other Criminal Justice Examples of Variations of the Experimental Model | |
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The Provo and Silverlake Experiments | |
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Evaluations of Shock Incarceration | |
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The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment | |
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The Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment | |
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The Experiment As a Data-Gathering Strategy | |
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Advantages of Experiments | |
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Disadvantages of Experiments | |
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An Introduction to Alternative Data-Gathering Strategies and the Special Case of Uniform Crime Reports | |
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Alternative Data-Gathering Strategies | |
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Social Surveys | |
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Participant Observation | |
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Life History and Case Studies | |
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Unobtrusive Measures | |
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Applied Research: Geographic Information Systems (GIS) | |
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The Special Case of Uniform Crime Reports | |
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The Crime Index | |
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Crime Rate | |
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Cautions in the Use of UCR Data | |
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Factors Affecting the UCR | |
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Related UCR Issues | |
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The Crime Dip | |
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UCR Redesign | |
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National Incident-Based Reporting System | |
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The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) | |
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NIBRS versus UCR | |
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Sampling and Survey Research: Questionnaires | |
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Types of Sampling | |
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Probability Samples | |
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Nonprobability Samples | |
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Crime Profiling | |
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Sample Size | |
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Survey Research | |
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Some Guidelines for Questionnaire Construction | |
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Questionnaire Wording | |
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Pretest | |
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Organization of the Questionnaire | |
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Mail Surveys | |
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Advantages of Mail Surveys | |
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Disadvantages of Mail Surveys | |
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Ways of Eliminating Disadvantages in Mail Surveys | |
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Follow-up | |
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Offering Remuneration | |
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Attractive Format | |
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Sponsorship and Endorsements | |
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Personalization | |
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Shortened Format | |
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Good Timing | |
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Self-Reported Measures of Crime | |
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Some Problems With Self-Report Surveys | |
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Strengths of Self-Report Surveys | |
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Reliability | |
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Validity | |
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Use of Other Data | |
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Use of Other Observers | |
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Use of Polygraph | |
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"Known Group" Validation | |
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Use of Lie Scales | |
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Measures of Internal Consistency | |
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Use of Interviews | |
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Internet Surveys | |
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Advantages of Internet Surveys | |
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Disadvantages of Internet Surveys | |
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Procedures in Internet Surveys | |
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Survey Research: Interviews and Telephone Surveys | |
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Types of Interviews | |
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Advantages of Interviews | |
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Disadvantages of Interviews | |
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Interviewing Aids and Variations | |
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Public Opinion Polls | |
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General Procedures in Interviews | |
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Training and Orientation Session | |
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Arranging the Interview | |
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Demeanor of Interviewer | |
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Administration of the Structured Interview | |
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Probing | |
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The Exit | |
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Recording the Interview | |
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Telephone Surveys | |
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Advantages and Prospects of Telephone Surveys | |
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Disadvantages of Telephone Surveys | |
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Computers in Survey Research | |
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Random Digit Dialing | |
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Techniques Employed in Telephone Surveys | |
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Victim Surveys in Criminal Justice | |
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National Crime Victimization Survey | |
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Sampling | |
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Panel Design | |
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A Comparison of UCR, Ncvs, and Self-Report Data | |
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Some Problems in Victim Surveys | |
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Cost of Large Samples | |
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False Reports | |
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Mistaken Reporting | |
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Poor Memory | |
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Telescoping | |
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Sampling Bias | |
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Overreporting and Underreporting | |
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Interviewer Effects | |
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Coding Unreliability and Mechanical Error | |
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Problems Measuring Certain Crimes | |
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Benefits of Victim Surveys | |
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A Defense of Victim Surveys | |
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Controlling for Error in Victim Surveys | |
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Bounding | |
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Reverse Record Checks | |
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Victim Surveys: A Balanced View | |
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Community Crime Victimization Survey Software | |
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Redesign of the National Crime Victimization Survey | |
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The Redesigned National Crime Victimization Survey | |
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Participant Observation and Case Studies | |
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A Critique of Experiments and Surveys | |
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Verbal Reports versus Behavior | |
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A Defense of Quantitative Research | |
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Participant Observation | |
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Types of Participant Observation | |
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Characteristics of Participant Observation | |
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Objectivity in Research | |
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"Going Native" | |
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General Procedures in Participant Observation | |
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Field Notes | |
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Mnemonics | |
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Caution in Use of Other Recording Methods | |
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Tips on Participant Observation | |
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Gaining Access | |
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American Skinheads | |
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Gatekeepers | |
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Announcement of Intentions | |
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Sampling | |
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Reciprocity and Protection of Identity | |
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Concern for Accuracy | |
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Examples of Participant Observation | |
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Islands in the Streets | |
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This Thing of Darkness: A Participant Observation Study of Idaho Christian Patriots | |
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Advantages of Participant Observation | |
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Disadvantages of Participant Observation | |
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Case Studies | |
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Life History/Oral History | |
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Some Examples of Case Studies | |
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Journalistic Field Studies | |
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Single-Subject Designs | |
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Unobtrusive Measures, Secondary Analysis, and the Uses of Official Statistics | |
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Major Types of Unobtrusive Methods | |
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Physical Trace Analysis | |
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Use of Available Data and Archives | |
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Secondary Analysis | |
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Personal Documents and Biographies | |
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Examples of Secondary Analysis | |
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Automated Pin Mapping: Applied Criminal Justice Research Using GIS for Crime Analysis | |
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Street Gang Crime in Chicago | |
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Limitations of Official Data | |
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Measuring Hidden Populations | |
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Historical and Archival Data | |
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Content Analysis | |
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Content Analysis by Computer | |
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Meta-Analysis | |
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Applied Criminal Justice Research: Hotspot Analysis | |
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Sources of Existing Data | |
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X-Files at the Federal Bureau of Investigation | |
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National Archive of Criminal Justice Data | |
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Observation | |
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Disguised Observation | |
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Simulations | |
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Advantages of Unobtrusive Measures | |
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Disadvantages of Unobtrusive Measures | |
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Validity, Reliability, and Triangulated Strategies | |
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Error in Research | |
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Reasons for Lack of Validation Studies in Criminal Justice | |
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Ways of Determining Validity | |
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Face Validity | |
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Content Validity | |
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Construct Validity | |
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Pragmatic Validity | |
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Convergent-Discriminant Validation/Triangulation | |
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Reliability | |
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Test-Retest | |
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Multiple Forms | |
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Split-Half Technique | |
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Mythical Numbers | |
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Phantom Army of Addicts | |
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Adam (Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program) | |
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Adam | |
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Other Examples of Research Validation | |
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Scaling and Index Construction | |
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Levels of Measurement | |
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Score Yourself General Attitude/Knowledge Survey | |
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Scaling Procedures | |
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Arbitrary Scales | |
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The Uniform Crime Report as an Arbitrary Scale | |
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Attitude Scales | |
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Thurstone Scales | |
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Likert Scales | |
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Guttman Scales | |
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Other Scaling Procedures | |
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Q Sort | |
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Semantic Differential | |
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Other Variations | |
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Crime Seriousness Scales | |
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Sellin-Wolfgang Index | |
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Types of Crime Seriousness Scales | |
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Prediction Scales | |
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The Salient Factor Score | |
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Greenwood's "Rand Seven-Factor Index" | |
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Career Criminal Programs | |
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Advantages of Scales | |
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Disadvantages of Scales | |
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Data Analysis: Coding, Tabulation, and Simple Data Presentation | |
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Variables List | |
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Computers | |
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Data Management | |
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Editing | |
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Coding | |
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Coder Monitoring | |
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Keyboard Entry | |
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Data Verification | |
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Simple Data Presentation | |
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Rates | |
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Proportions | |
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Percentages | |
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Ratios | |
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The Frequency Distribution | |
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Graphic Presentations | |
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Pie Charts | |
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Bar Graphs | |
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Frequency Polygons (Line Charts) | |
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Crime Clocks | |
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Table Reading | |
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Why Bother with Tables? | |
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What to Look for in a Table | |
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Steps in Reading a Table | |
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Summary of Table 11.3 | |
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How to Construct Tables | |
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Presentation of Complex Data | |
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General Rules for Percentaging a Table | |
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Improper Percentaging | |
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Elaboration | |
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Lying with Statistics | |
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Data Analysis: A User's Guide to Statistics | |
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Why Study Statistics? | |
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Types of Statistics | |
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Measures of Central Tendency for a Simple Distribution | |
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Mode | |
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Median | |
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Mean | |
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Measures of Dispersion | |
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Range | |
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Standard Deviation ([sigma]) | |
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Standard Deviation Units (Z Scores) | |
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Chi-Square (X[superscript 2]) | |
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Calculation of Chi-Square | |
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Cautions | |
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Chi-Square-Based Measures of Association | |
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Phi Coefficient ([phi]) and Phi-Square ([phi superscript 2]) | |
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Contingency Coefficient (C) | |
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Cramer's V | |
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Nature and Types of Statistics | |
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Nonparametric Statistics | |
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Null Hypothesis | |
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Tests of Significance | |
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The t Test (Difference of Means Test) | |
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Types of t Tests | |
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Anova (Analysis of Variance) | |
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Calculation of ANOVA | |
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Other Measures of Relationship | |
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The Concept of Relationship | |
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Correlation Coefficient (Pearson's r) | |
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Interpretation of Pearson's r | |
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Calculation of Pearson's r | |
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Statistical Significance of Pearson's r | |
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Regression | |
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Ordinal Level Measures of Relationship | |
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Spearman's Rho (r[subscript s]) | |
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Interpretation of Rho | |
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Gamma | |
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Multivariate Analysis | |
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Partial Correlation | |
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Multiple Correlation and Regression | |
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Statistical Software | |
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Caveat Emptor | |
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The Ecological Fallacy | |
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Policy Analysis and Evaluation Research | |
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Policy Analysis | |
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Evaluation Research | |
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Policy Experiments | |
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Policy Analysis: The Case of the National Institute of Justice Research Program | |
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NIJ Mission Statement | |
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NIJ Research Priorities | |
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A Systems Model of Evaluation Research | |
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Types of Evaluation Research | |
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Will the Findings Be Used? | |
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Is the Project Evaluable? | |
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Who Can Do This Work? | |
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Steps in Evaluation Research | |
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Problem Formulation | |
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Design of Instruments | |
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Research Design | |
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Data Collection | |
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Data Analysis | |
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Utilization | |
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What Works in Criminal Justice? | |
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Preventing Crime: What Works, What Doesn't, What's Promising | |
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Obstacles to Evaluation Research | |
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Researchers and Host Agencies | |
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How to Write the Research Report | |
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Table of Random Numbers | |
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Statistics: An Addendum to Chapter 12 | |
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Measures of Central Tendency for Grouped Data | |
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Standard Deviations for Grouped Data | |
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Raw Score Approach | |
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Deviation Score Approach | |
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Calculation of Anova | |
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Regression Calculations | |
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A Test of Significance for Gamma | |
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Answers to Pop Quizzes in Chapter 12 | |
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Normal Curve Areas | |
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Distribution of Chi-Square (X[superscript 2]) | |
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Proposal Writing and Evaluation | |
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Proposal Writing | |
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Funding Agencies | |
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Grantsmanship | |
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Basic Elements of a Proposal | |
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NIJ Proposal Format and Content | |
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Evaluation of Research Proposals | |
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NIJ Evaluation of Proposals | |
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References | |
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Glossary | |
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Name Index | |
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Subject Index | |