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| Preface | |
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| Foreword | |
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| Analysis of the Metrological Requirements Needed to Ensure Quality | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Definition of the objectives | |
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| Choice of the method of measurement | |
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| Accounting for the selection of the method | |
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| Defining the method and the principle to implement | |
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| Choice of the means of measurement | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Analysis of what is already available | |
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| Assessment and acquisition of material | |
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| Technical criteria | |
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| Basic characteristics | |
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| Comportment towards influence quantities | |
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| Durability of the instruments used | |
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| Homogeneity of the supply of instruments | |
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| Quality of the supplier's service | |
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| Adaptation of the instrument | |
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| Possibility of traceability | |
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| Computerization and the speed of taking measurements | |
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| Ergonomics | |
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| Capability of measuring instruments | |
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| Economic criteria | |
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| Grid of the analysis of the choice | |
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| Stage 1: primary technical requirements (unavoidably necessary) | |
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| Stage 2: secondary technical requirements (desirable) | |
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| Technical assistance for users of measuring instruments | |
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| The EXERA (France) | |
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| VDI/VDE-GMA (Germany) | |
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| The traceability of the measurements | |
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| The necessity of traceability of the measurements | |
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| Calibration requirements | |
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| The selection of standards | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Organization of Metrology: Industrial, Scientific, Legal | |
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| A metrological organization: why? | |
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| Metrology: how? | |
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| Scientific and technical metrology | |
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| The BIPM | |
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| Results of the international activities | |
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| Regional organizations | |
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| Euromet | |
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| European Cooperation for Accreditation (EA) | |
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| Accreditation procedure | |
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| Organization at the national level | |
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| The Laboratoire National de Metrologie et d'Essais (LNE) | |
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| The Italian national calibration system (SNT) | |
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| The Swiss national calibration system | |
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| Legal Metrology | |
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| Scope of legal metrology | |
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| The International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) | |
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| The European level | |
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| European Union harmonization | |
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| WELMEC | |
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| Other regional bodies | |
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| At national level | |
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| Legal metrology in Italy | |
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| Legal metrology in Switzerland | |
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| Legal metrology in France | |
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| Mastering Measurement Processes Approach to the Setting up of a Metrology Function | |
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| What to do at the beginning? | |
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| Goals and role of the measurement management system - metrological function | |
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| The measurement processes | |
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| Conception and development of a new measurement process | |
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| Analysis of the requirements | |
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| Transcription of the characteristics of the product in "measurand" form or "characteristics to be measured" form | |
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| The development of a measurement process can be managed as a project | |
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| Exploitation of a valid process | |
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| Continuous improvement of measurement processes | |
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| Management of the measuring equipment (metrological confirmation) | |
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| Analysis of the requirement and selection of the measuring equipments | |
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| Technical requirements | |
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| Economic and commercial conditions | |
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| Assessment of the measuring equipment | |
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| Receiving the measuring equipment and putting it into service | |
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| Compliance with the order | |
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| Identification of the measuring equipment | |
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| Inventory (description) | |
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| Technical dossier of the equipment | |
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| Technical documentation | |
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| Basic definitions | |
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| Calibration and verification operations | |
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| Calibration or verification program | |
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| Calibration or verification intervals | |
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| Supervision of the measuring equipment | |
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| Fitness for use of measuring equipment | |
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| Freedom from bias, repeatability, stability | |
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| Maximum permissible errors | |
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| Demands for an assurance of the quality | |
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| Setting up a metrological structure within the firm | |
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| Analysis of the metrological requirements and setting up standards | |
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| Traceability of the measuring instrument(s) to the firm's reference standards | |
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| Traceability of the firm's reference standards to the SI | |
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| Suggested approach for setting up a metrology function | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Handling of a Bank of Measuring Instruments | |
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| Acquaintance with the bank | |
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| Inventory | |
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| Identification | |
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| Metrological policy of the firm | |
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| Objective and commitment of the firm's management | |
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| Plan of actions to launch | |
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| Awareness, training and vocabulary | |
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| Selection of the material to be followed periodically | |
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| Drafting of the documents | |
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| Codification of the documents | |
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| Work instructions | |
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| Result-recording documents | |
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| Other documents | |
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| Physical handling of the measuring instruments | |
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| Receipt | |
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| Transfer | |
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| Traceability | |
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| Transfer | |
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| Precautions | |
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| Storing and environment | |
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| Maintenance | |
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| Follow-up of the measuring instruments over time | |
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| Periodicity of the follow-up | |
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| Campaign of recall | |
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| Follow-up of the results | |
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| Software for the handling of the means of measurements | |
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| Traceability to National Standards | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Definitions | |
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| Traceability | |
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| Calibration | |
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| Verification | |
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| Traceability chains | |
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| Traceability | |
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| Calibration | |
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| Calibration in an accredited laboratory | |
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| Calibration in a non-accredited laboratory | |
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| Verification | |
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| Verification in an accredited laboratory and in its accreditation scope | |
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| Verification in a non-accredited laboratory or out of the accreditation scope | |
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| Use of calibration and verification results | |
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| Use of the results of a calibration | |
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| Use of the results of a verification | |
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| Particular cases | |
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| "Self-calibrating" or "self-gauging" measuring instruments | |
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| Complex instruments in which components/equipments and software are narrowly combined and large measurement ranges are covered for complex quantities | |
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| Metrology in chemistry and physical methods of chemical analysis | |
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| Traceabilty in metrology in chemistry | |
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| Influence of the principle of the method | |
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| Absolute methods | |
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| Relative method | |
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| Comparative method | |
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| "Documentary" traceability | |
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| Control of the reference materials | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Assessment of traceability | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Calibration Intervals and Methods for Monitoring the Measurement Processes | |
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| Normative requirements | |
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| Methods for monitoring the instruments in use - general criteria | |
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| First method: metrological redundancies | |
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| Second method: checking the coherence of the results | |
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| Third method: "monitoring standards" and statistical supervision of the measurement processes | |
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| Statistical control of the measurement processes | |
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| Control charts | |
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| Use of the monitoring methods | |
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| The determination of the calibration intervals | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Measurements and Uncertainties | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Measurement of physical quantity | |
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| Analysis of the measurement process | |
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| The cause and effect diagram method | |
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| Using the list published in the GUM (section 3.3.2) | |
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| Errors | |
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| Cutting down the errors | |
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| Cutting down random errors by repeating measurements | |
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| Cutting down systematic errors by applying corrections | |
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| Modeling of the measurement process | |
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| Measurement procedure and model of the measurement process | |
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| An essential stage for the assessment of uncertainty: modeling the measurement | |
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| Assessment of the uncertainty of the input quantities | |
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| Type A methods | |
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| Type B methods | |
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| Comparing the Type A and Type B methods | |
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| Calculating the combined uncertainty on the result | |
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| Situation when all the input quantities are independent | |
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| Situation when the input quantities are independent and the model is a sum | |
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| Situation when the model is a product | |
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| Situation when the input quantities are dependent | |
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| Assessment of the covariances by assessing a coefficient of correlation r(x[subscript i], x[subscript j]) | |
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| Assessment of the covariances by calculating the terms of covariance | |
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| Assessment of the covariances by considering the terms common to two input quantities | |
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| Use of the performances of the method (repeatability and freedom of bias) to assess the uncertainty of the measurement result | |
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| Intra- or interlaboratory approaches | |
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| Intra-laboratory approach | |
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| Interlaboratory approach | |
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| Data processing for intra- and interlaboratory approaches | |
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| Assessment of the repeatability and the reproducibility | |
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| Assessment of the freedom of bias (trueness) | |
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| Evaluation of the linearity | |
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| The terms [characters not reproducible] | |
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| Reporting of the measurement result | |
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| Example | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| The Environment of Measuring | |
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| The premises | |
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| Ambient temperature | |
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| Relative humidity | |
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| Handling of the air conditioning systems | |
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| Power network | |
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| Radioelectric disturbances | |
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| Measurements on-site | |
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| The personnel | |
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| The connection of metrology function | |
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| Staff involved in the metrology function | |
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| The qualification of the personnel | |
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| The documentation | |
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| Filing of the documents | |
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| Documents dealing with the quality system | |
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| Records regarding quality | |
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| Management of the documents | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Appendix | |
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| About Measuring | |
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| Preliminary information | |
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| Physical quantity | |
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| The object to be measured | |
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| Field of measurement | |
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| Four types of uses of measuring instruments | |
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| Influencing quantities | |
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| Choice of a measuring principle | |
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| Differential measurement | |
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| Direct measurement | |
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| Indirect measurement | |
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| Practicing in metrology | |
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| Implementing the instruments | |
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| Precautions before measuring | |
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| Measurements | |
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| Variations and their sign | |
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| The time factor | |
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| Expression of the results | |
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| Graphs | |
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| Histograms | |
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| What qualities does a metrologist require? | |
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| Be inquisitive | |
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| Be tidy and methodical | |
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| Be open to doubt | |
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| Be observant | |
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| Be honest | |
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| Organization of Metrology at Solvay Research and Technology | |
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| Presentation of the company | |
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| Organization of the metrology sector | |
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| Creation | |
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| Missions | |
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| Organization | |
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| Geographic localization of the activities | |
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| Composition of the bank of measuring equipment | |
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| Metrology | |
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| Identification | |
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| Connection of the standards | |
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| Periodicity of the calibrations | |
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| Calibration operations | |
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| Documentation of the calibration results | |
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| Verdict of the metrological confirmation | |
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| Indication of the state of the calibrations | |
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| Personnel and subcontracting | |
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| Metrology within the Scope of the ISO 9001 Standard | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Introduction to the evolution of the standard | |
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| The concept of continuous improvement | |
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| The process approach | |
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| Measurement control process | |
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| The ISO 9001 (2000) standard step-by-step | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Training for the Metrology Professions in France | |
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| The metrology function in a firm's strategy | |
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| Metrology profession | |
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| Metrological engineer | |
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| Metrological technician | |
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| Metrological operator | |
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| Initial training | |
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| Schools for engineers | |
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| Courses for higher level technicians | |
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| Vocational high schools | |
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| Continuing education | |
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| Long-lasting training courses | |
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| The teaching of metrology in secondary schools | |
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| Prospects for the development of long-lasting training courses | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| The Authors | |
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| Index | |